BooR-lC— ^
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PEEFACE
The reception accorded to our Select Translations from
Old English Poetry has encouraged us to believe that a
companion volume from Old English prose might be wel-
come. While primarily intended for the student of litera-
ture, it will be found to contain' matter of scarcely less
interest to the student of history, and especially of what
the Germans call the history of culture.
A preliminary examination of the wiitings of the period,
with reference to a provisional selection of passages for
the work, was made, at the suggestion of the senior editor,
by Miss Mary W. Smyth and ]\Iiss Elizabeth W. Man-
warmg, both of whom are represented in the volume by
translations; but the eventual decision was made by
ourselves.
Some justification may be necessary for including trans-
lations from Latin, as well as from Old English, In the
first place, works like the Ecclesiastical History and the
Pastoral Care were originally composed in Latin, and this
Latin can hardly be ignored in making translations into
modern English ; while most other prose writings of the
period are colored by Latin influence. In the second place,
an author like Alcuin is essentially EugHsh, though none
of Ms extant writings are in that tongue, and though much
of his life was passed on the Continent. Finally, portions of
the Benedictine Rule are included, because of its profound
and extensive influence upon men's minds in that age, and
because it, too, was translated and glossed in the Old
Enghsh period.
iv PREFACE ^ ^ -^
Our tlianks are due to those translators — all of them
graduate students of English at Yale in the past or present
— who have willingly collaborated with us. It became
more and more evident, as we proceeded, that the older
versions, such as those of Giles, are too inaccurate to be
reproduced witliout modification ; our only regret on this
point is that new translations were not made in all such
cases.
We should be glad if this book might do something to
extend and deepen the interest in the words and works of
tliose who toiled, a millennium or more ago, that England
and the world might live; and we could even wish that
it might suggest a closer conformity to their simplicity,
courage, and devotion to tlie things of the spirit.
Yai-k Univkksitv
November 15, ]J)07
CONTENTS
PAGE
I, Works Mainly Historical 1
Selections from Bede's Ecclesiastical History of the English
People 3
1. Preface 5
2. Bede's Description of Britain and Ireland 7
3. The Britons send to Rome for Aid against the Picts
and Scots 11
4. The Coming of the English 14
5. A Victory for the Britons 17
6. The Sending of Augustine 17
7. The Arri»val of Augustine . , 19
8. Augustine's Manner of Life 21-
9. Pope Gregory sends more Laborers 23
10. The Life of Pope Gregory 23^
11. King Edwin of Northumbria embraces Christianity . 31
12. The Baptism of King Edwin 34
13. King Edwin's Rule 35
14. King Oswald at Heavenfield 36
15. The Coming of Aidan 37
16. Aidan' s Manner of Life 38
17. The Humility of King Oswin 41
18. Bede's Final Estimate of Aidan 43
19. The Choice of Theodore and Hadrian 44
20. The Teaching of Theodore 45
21. The Life and Death of Chad 46
22. John, the Singer of the Apostolic See 50
23. The Life and Death of the Abbess Hild 50
24. The Poet Csedmon 54
25. Dryhthelm's Vision of the Hereafter 58
Selections from the Old English Chronicle 66
A.D. 1; 33; 199; 449; 793; 832; 833; 851; 865; 871;
875; 878; 886; 897; 901; 1066; 1087.
V
(
vi CONTENTS
PAGE
Selections from the Old English Laws . 76
1. Alfred's Statement concerning His Laws .... 77
2. Of Plotting against a Lord 78
3. Of Taking Refuge in a Church 79
4. Of Feuds 79
Charters 80
Lufu's Will 80
II. The Works of King Alfred, and Matter relating to
Alfred 83
Selections from Asser''s Life of King Alfred 86
1. Alfred's Rearing 87
2. Alfred and the Book of Saxon Poems 88
3. Alfred's Love of Learning 88
4. Battle of Ashdown 89
5. Alfred's Varied Pursuits 91
6. Alfred's Scholarly Associates : Werfrith, Plegmund,
iEthelstan, and Werwulf . . . • 93
7. How Alfred rewards Submission 94
8. Alfred's Manual 96
9. Alfred's Troubles 96
10. Alfred judges the Poor with Equity 98
11. His Correction of Unjust and Incompetent Judges . 98
Selections from Gregoiy's Pastoral Care 100,
1. Alfred's Preface 101
2. Gregory's Preface 104
3. Of the Burden of Rule, and how the Teacher is to
despise all Toils, and how afraid he must be of
every Luxury 105
4. How the Teacher is to be Sympathizing with and
Solicitous about all Men in their Troubles . . . 107
Selections from Orosius' Universal History 108
1. The Voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan 109
Ohthere's First Voyage 109
Wulf Stan's Voyage 112
2. The Four Empires 114
3. Orosius' Defense of Christian Times 114
4. Augustus 115
CONTENTS vii
PAGE
Selections from. Boethius'' Consolation of Philosophy . . 110
1. Alfred's Preface 117
2. Alfred's Account of Boethius 117
3. Of True Riches 118
4. The Golden Age 119
5. Of Worldly Power 120
6. A King's Ideal 122
7. The Emptiness of Fame 123
8. The Unspeakable Power of God 124
9. The Tale of Orpheus and Euiydice 126
10. A Journey through the Heavens 128
11. The Example of the Famous Men of Yore . . . 129
12. The Nature of the Deity 129
13. Alfred's Concluding Prayer 131
Selections from St. Augustine's Soliloquies 131
1. Alfred's Preface 132
2. A Portion of Book 2 133
3. Book 3 : 141
III. ^LFRIC AND THE HOMILISTS 147
Selections from ^If ric 149
1. Preface to the Translation of Genesis 149
2. English Preface to the Grammar 1-51
3. English Preface to Homilies I 152
4. English Preface to Homilies II 154
5. New Year's Day 154
6. Daily Miracles 156
7. God and the Human Soul 157
8. Spiritual Miracles 1<^^
9. All Saints 1^1
10. The Easter Homily 164
11. The True Shepherd and the Hireling 173
12. The Invention of the Holy Cross 175
13. A Colloquy 1"^^
14. Fragment of a Homily on the False Gods .... 186
15. From the Canons l-'l
16. Yrom the Epistle for Wulf Stan 1^1
Wulfstan 1^'^
Wulfstan's Sermon to the English 104
viii CONTENTS
PAGE
Selection from the BUckling Homilies 200
The Signs of the Last Judgment 200
IV. Late Anonymous Works 205
Selections from Apollonius of Tyre 207
The Harrowing of Hell 218
V. Latin Works by Old English Writers 229
Selections from the Minor Works of Bede 231
1. The English Months 231
2. Selections from the Life of St. Cuthbert 233
3. Selections from the Life of Benedict Biscop . . . 248
4. Selections from the Life of Ceolfrith 247
5. Bede's Letter to Egbert, Archbishop of York . . 252
Cuthbert's Letter on the Death of Bede 255
Selections from the Letters of Alcuin 260
1. To the Monks of Wearmouth and Jarrow .... 261
2. To ^thelheard, Archbishop of Canterbury ... 264
3. From the So-called Caroline Books 265
4. To the Monks of York 267
5. To Arno, Bishop of Salzburg 268
6. To Eanbald II, Archbishop of York 269
7. To Charlemagne 271
8. To Cffinvvulf, King of Mercia 273
9. To the People of Canterbury 273
10. To the Monks of Salzburg 275
11. To Arno, Archbishop of Salzburg 275
12. To Charlemagne 276
13. To Eanbald II, Archbishop of York 277
Selections from the Benedictine Rule 278
1. The Four Kinds of Monks 279
2. Concerning Brethren who are Sick 280
3. The Measure of Food 281
4. Labor and Reading 282
5. Artificers in a Monastery 284
6. Rank in the Community 284
INI^EX 287
I
WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
SELECTIONS FEOM BEDE'S ECCLESIASTICAL
HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH PEOPLE
The chief source of our knowledge of the life of Bede is his
own account of himself at the close of his Ecclesiastical History :
' I, Bede, the servant of God, and priest of the monastery of the
blessed apostles Peter and Paul, which is at Wearmouth and
Jarrow, being born in the territory of that same monastery,
was given at seven years of age to be educated by the most
reverend Abbot Benedict, and afterwards by Ceolfrith ; and
spending all the remaining time of my life in that monastery, I
wholly applied myself to the study of Scripture, and, amidst the
observance of regular discipline, and the daily care of singing in
the church, I always took delight in learning, teaching, and
writing.^ In the nineteenth year of my age, I received deacon's
orders ; in the thirtieth, those of the priesthood — both of them
by the ministry of the most reverend Bishop John, and by order
of the Abbot Ceolfrith. From which time till this fifty-ninth year
of my age, I have made it my business, for the use of me and
mine, to compile out of the works of the venerable Fathers, and
to interpret and explain according to their meaning, these follow-
ing pieces.' [A list of his works follows.] Bede apparently spent
his entire youth and manhood at Jarrow, though it is not impos-
sible that this quiet life was interrupted by a journey to Rome.
For the story of his death, which probably occurred May 26, 735,
see pp. 255 ff. An excellent account of him may be found in
Plummer's edition of the Ecclesiastical History 1. ix-lxxix.
Benedict Biscop (? 628-690. Cf. pp. 243 ff.), above referred to,
is noted as the founder and systematic governor of the Benedictine
monasteries at Wearmouth (founded 674) and Jarrow (founded
682). He endowed these with an excellent library of patristic
literature, much of which he had himself bought at Rome, and
in the days of Bede Jarrow became one of the chief seats of
learning in all Europe. It has been often pointed out that its
1 See Wordsworth, Eccl. Sonnets 23.
4 >VOKKS MAINLY lllsrOKK AL
situation coutribiited to pnxiuce its fame, for it sust^vinod rola-
titiiis more or less intimate with the Celtic chiuvh in Nortli-
umbria, with the Gallic church, and with Cant^nbury (whence
Betie may have obtained his acquaintance with the Greek lan-
guage). Bede became the priucijnil scholar of Jarrow, and
through his influence the famous School of York was founded
by Egbert, one of his pupils. At York the works of Bede were
studied not only by English, but by Continental pupils. Finally
by Alcuin (see pp. '200 i^".) their influence was transferred to the
court -schools of Charlemagne.
The list of Bede 's complete works is surprisingly large, includ-
ing commentaries on the various books of the C)ld and New
Testaments, homilies, lives of saints and abbots, a translation of
the Gospel of St. John (now lost), sundry scientiflc works, and a
history of the world, De Sex .Etatihm Sa?culi. The complete works
of Bede may be consulted not only in Migne's Patrohnjia Latina
(Vols. 90-95, Paris, 1844), but also in the edition of J. A. Giles,
London, 1848-44.
The Ecdesiiastical Histonj of the Euglish People is the most famous
of Bede's works. It is divided into five books. The earlier chap-
ters, descriptive of England and its history before the coming of
Augustine, are based on previous Latin works, such as those of
Orosius (see pp. 108 if.), Eutropius, and Gildas. From 1. 2o on,
the sources are more independent. Bede drew much from local
annals, oral and written communication, and j>ersonal recollec-
tion. A tendency to sift evidence is noticeable here and there
(cf. pp. 5 ff., 4Ji, 64). The history closes with the year 731.
A translation of Bede's Hhtonj into Old English was made by
King Alfred, or by scholars working under his direction. For
theories concerning its authorshi}>, see Miller's edition (London,
1890-91), and riummer's Life and Times of Alfred the (ireat (Ox-
ford, 1902), chap. (5. '
The original Latin text nuiy be consulted in Plummer's edition
(Oxford, 1890). An excellent edition of Books 8 and 4 has been
made by Mayor and Lund>y (8d ed., Cambridge, 1881). Moberly 's
edition (Oxford, 1869) is also valuable. Still worthy of honor is
the splendid folio edition of Smith (Cambridge, 1722), contain-
ing both the Latin and the Old English, besides other historical
works of Bede.
SELECTIONS FROM BEDE'S HISTORY 5
1. PREFACE
I formerly, at your request, most reaclily transmitted
to you the Eadedantical History of the Enfjluh Natwn,
which I had newly published, for you to read, and give
it your approbation ; and I now send it again to be tran-
scribed, and more fully considered at. your leisure. . . . But
to the end that I may remove all occasion of doubting
what I have written, both from yourself and other readers
or hearers of this history, I will take care briefly to inti-
mate from what authors I chiefly learned the same.
My principal authority and aid iu this work was the
learned and reverend Abbot Albinus; who, educated in
the cliurch of Canterbury by those venerable and learned
men, Archbishop Theodore of blessed memory, and the
Abbot Hadrian, transmitted to me by Nothelm, the pious
priest of the church of London, either in writing, or by
word of mouth of the same Nothelm, all that he thought
worthy of memory that had been done in the province
(jf Kent or the adjacent jjaits by the disciples of the
blessed Pope Gregory, as he had learned the same either
from written records or the traditions of his ancestors.
The same Nothelm, afterwards going to Eome, having,
with leave of the jjresent Pope Gregory, searched iuto the
archives of the holy Koman church, found there some
epistles of the blessed Pope Gregory and other popes ; and
returning lujme, by the advice of the aforesaid most rever-
end father Albinus brought them to me, to be inserted in
my history. Thus, from the beginning of this volume to
the time when the English nation received the faith of
Christ, have we collected the writings of our predecessors,
and from them gathered matter for our history ; but from
that time till tlie present, what was transacted in the
6 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
church of Canterbury by the disciples of St. Gregory or
their successors, and under what kings the same happened,
has been conveyed to us by Nothelm through the industry
of the aforesaid Abbot Albinus. They also partly informed
me by what bishops and under what kings the provinces
of the East and West Saxons, as also of the East Angles,
and' of the Northumbrians, received the faith of Christ.
In short, I was chiefly encouraged to undertake tliis work
by the persuasions of the same Albinus. In like manner,
Daniel, the most reverend bishop of the West Saxons, who
is stni living, communicated to me in writing some things
relating to the ecclesiastical history of that province, and
of the South Saxons, next adjoining to it, as also of the
Isle of Wight. But how, by the pious ministry of Cedd
and Chad, the province of the Mercians was brought to
the faith of Christ, which they knew not before, and how
that of the East Saxons recovered the same after having
expelled it, and how those fathers lived and died, we
learned from the brethren of the monastery which was
built by them, and is called Lastingham. What ecclesias-
tical transactions took place hi the province of the East
Angles was partly made known to us from the writings
and tradition of our ancestors, and partly by relation of
the most reverend Abbot Esi. What was done towards
promoting the faith, and what was the sacerdotal succes-
sion in tlie provmce of Lindsey, we had either from the
letters of the most reverend Bishop Cynibert, or by word
of mouth from other persons of good credit. But what
was done in the church throughout the provmce of the
Nortliumbrians, from the time when they received the
faith of Christ till this present, I received not from any
particular autlior, l)ut by the faithful testimony of innumer-
able witnesses, who might know or remember the same;
SELECTIONS FROM BEDE'S HISTORY 7
besides what I had of my own knowledge. Wherein it is
to be observed that what I have written concerning our
most holy father Bishop Cuthbert, either in this volume
or in my treatise on his life and actions, I partly took
and faithfully copied from what I found written of him
by the brethren of the church of Lindisfarne ; but at the
same time took care to add such tilings as I could myself
have knowledge of by the faithful testimony of such as
knew him. And I humbly entreat the reader that if he
shall in this that we have written find anything not
delivered according to the truth, he will not impute the
same to me, who, as the true rule of history requires,
have labored sincerely to commit to writmg such things
as I could gather from common report, for the instruction
of posterity.
•2. BEDE'S DESCRIPTIOX OF BRITAIN AND IRELAND
Bk. 1, chap. 1
Britain, an island in the ocean, formerly called Albion,
is situated between the north and west, facing, though at
a considerable distance, the coasts of Germany, France, and
Spain, which form the greatest part of Europe. It extends
eight hundred miles in length towards the north, and is
two hundred miles in breadth, except where several prom-
ontories extend further in breadth, by which its compass
is made to be 4875 miles. . . .
The island excels in fruits and trees, and is well adapted
for feeding cattle and beasts of burden. It also produces
vines in some places, and has plenty of land- and water-
fowl of various sorts ; it is remarkable also for rivers
abounding in fish, and plentiful springs. It has the great-
est plenty of salmon and eels ; seals are also frequently
8 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
taken, and dolphins, as also whales; besides many sorts
of shell-fish, such as mussels, in which are often found
excellent pearls ^ of all colors — red, purple, violet, and
green — but mostly white. There is also a great abun-
dance of cockles, of which the scarlet dye is made — a
most beautiful color, which never fades with the heat of
the sun or the washing of the rain ; but the older it is,
the more beautiful it becomes. It has both salt and hot
springs, and from them flow rivers which furnish hot baths,
proper for all ages and both sexes, and arranged in separate
places, according as each person may prefer. For water,
as St. Basil says,^ receives the heating quality when it
runs along certain metals, and becomes not only hot,
but scalding. Britain has also many veins of metals, as
copper, iron, lead, and silver ;^ it has much and excel-
lent jet, which is black and burns when fire is applied
to it ; when heated, it drives away serpents; being warmed
b}^ rubbing, it holds fast whatever is applied to it, like
amber. The island was formerly embellished with twenty-
eight noble cities, besides mnumerable castles, which were
all strongly secured with walls, towers, gates, and locks.
From its lymg almost under the North Pole, the nights
are light in summer, so that at midnight the beholders
are often in doubt whether the evening twilight still con-
tinues, or that of the morning is coming on;^ for the sun,
in the night, returns under the earth through the northern
regions, at no great distance from them. For this reason
the days are of a great length in summer, as, on the con-
trary, the nights are in winter, for the sun then withdraws
hito the southern parts, so that the nights are eighteen
1 So Tacitus, Pliny, Solinus, iElian.
2 Hexaem. 4. 6, quoted from the Latin translation (cf. Migne, Pair.
Lat. 5:^. 907).
3 Cf. Tacitus, A(/jic. 12 (Plummer).
SELECTIONS FROM BEDE'S HISTORY 9
hours long. Thus the nights are extraordinarily short in
summer, and the days in winter, that is, of only six equi-
noctial hours ; whereas in Armenia, Macedonia, Italy, and
other countries of the same latitude, the longest day or
night extends but to fifteen hours, and the shortest to nine.
This island at present, following the number of the
books in wdiich the divine law was w^ritten, contains five
languages — those of the English, Britons, Scots, Picts,
and Latins — each examining and confessing one and the
same knowledge of the highest truth and of true sublimity.
The Latin tongue is, by the study of the Scriptures, become
common to all the others.
At first this island had no other inhabitants but the
Britons, from whom it derived its name, and who, coming
over into Britain, as is reported, from Armorica, possessed
themselves of the southern parts thereof. When they,
beginning at the south, had made themselves masters of
the greatest part of the island, it happened that the nation
of the Picts — from Scythia,i as is reported — putting to
sea in a few long ships, were driven by the winds beyond
the shores of Britain, and arrived on the northern coast of
Ireland, where finding the nation of the Scots, they begged
to be allowed to settle among them, but could not succeed
in obtaining their request.
Ireland is the greatest island next to Britain, and lies
to the west of it; but as it is shorter than Britain to
the north, so on the other hand it runs out far beyond
it to the south, opposite to the northern parts of Spain,^
though a spacious sea lies between them. The Picts, as
has been said, arriving in this island by sea, desired to
1 Namely Scandinavia, but the Picts were either a pre-Aryan race (Rhys,
Plummer), or Celts of the Cymric rather than the Gaelic stock (Windisch,
Stokes) .
2 Cf. Tacitus, Agric. 10.
10 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
liave a place granted them in which they might settle.
The Scots answered that the island could not contain
them both ; ' but we can give you good advice/ said they,
'what to do; we know there is another island, not far
from ours to the eastward, which we often see at a dis-
tance when the days are clear. If you will go thither,
you will obtain settlements ; or if they should oppose you,
you shall have our assistance.'
The Picts, accordingly, sailing over into Britain, began
to inhabit the northern parts thereof, for the Britons were
possessed of the southern. Now the Picts had no wives,
and asked them of the Scots, who would not consent to
grant them upon any other terms than that when any
difficulty should arise, they should choose a king from
the female royal race rather than from the male ; which
custom, as is well known, has been observed among the
Picts to this day. In process of time, Britain, besides the
Britons and the Picts, received a third nation, the Scots,
who, migrating from Ireland under their leader Reuda,
either, by fair means or by force of arms secured to them-
selves those settlements among the Picts which they still
possess. From the name of their commander, they are to
this day called Dalreudins ; for in their language Dal
signifies a part.
Ireland, in breadth, and for wholesomeness and serenity
of climate, far surpasses Britain, for the snow scarcely ever
lies there above three days; no man makes hay in the
summer for winter's provision, or builds stables for his
beasts of burden. No reptiles are found there, and no
snake can live there; for, though often carried thither
out of Britain, as soon as the ship comes near the shore,
and the scent of the air reaches them, they die. . . . The
island abounds in milk and honey, nor is there any want
SELECTIONS FROM BEDE'S HISTORY H
of vines, fish, or fowl ; and it is remarkable for deer and
goats. It is properly the country of the Scots, who, migrat-
ing from thence, as has been said, added a third nation in
Britain to the Britons and the Picts. There is a very large
gulf 6f the sea, which formerly divided the nation of the
Picts from the Britons ; which gulf ^ runs from the west
very far into the land, where, to this day, stands the strong
city of the Britons, called Alcluith.^ The Scots, arriving
on the north side of this bay, settled themselves there.
3. THE BRITOXS SEXD TO ROME FOR AID AGAIXST
THE PICTS AND SCOTS
Bk. 1, chap. 12 3
From that time the south part of Britain, destitute of
armed soldiers, of martial stores, and of all its active
youth, who had been led away by the rashness of the
tyrants, never to return, was wholly exposed to rapine,
as being totally ignorant of the use of weapons. Where-
upon they suffered many years under two very savage
foreign nations, the Scots from the west, and the Picts
from the north. . . .
On account of the irruption of these nations, the Britons
sent messengers to Eome with letters in mournful manner,
praying for succors, and promising perpetual subjection pro-
vided that the impending enemy should be driven away.
An armed legion was immediately sent them, which, arriv-
ing in the island, and engaging the enemy, slew a great
multitude of them, drove the rest out of the territories of
their allies, and having delivered them from their cruel
oppressors, advised them to build a wall between the two
1 The Firth of Clyde. 2 Now Dumbarton.
3 Largely from Gildas.
12 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
seas 1 across the island, that it might secure them, and keep
off the enemy ; and thus they returned home with great
triumph. The islandei-s raising the wall, as they had been
directed, not of stone — as having; no eui^ineer capable of
such a work — but of sods, made it of no use. However,
they drew it for many miles between the two bays or inlets
of the sea which we have spoken of ; to the end that where
the defense of the water was wantinij, thev mio[ht use the
rampart to defend their borders from the irruptions of the
enemies. Of which work there erected, that is, a rampart
of extraordinary breadth and height, there are evident
remains to be seen at this day. It begins at about two
miles' distance from the monastery of Abercurnig,- on the
west, at a place called in the Pictish language Peanfahel,
but in the English tongue Penneltun. and running to tlie
westward, ends near the city of Alcluiih.
But tlie former enemies, when they jierceived that the
Roman soldiers were gone, immediately coming by sea,
broke into the borders, trampled and overran all places,
and, hke men mowing ripe corn, bore down all before
them. Hereupon messengers were again sent^ to Rome
imploring aid, lest their wretched country should be utterly
extirpated, and the name of a Roman provmce, so long
reno^^Tled among them, should be overthrown by the cruel-
ties of barbarous foreigners, and become utterly contempt-
ible. A lesjion was accordinojlv sent asrain, and arrivini^j
unexpectedly in autumn,* made great slaughter of the
enemy, obliging all those that could escape to flee beyond
the sea ; whereas before they were wont yearly to carry
off their booty without any opposition. Then the Romans
1 The Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde.
2 Now Abercoi-n, not far from Edinburgh.
8 Moberly thinks after 411.
4 Bede has here taken literally a figurative expression of Gildas'.
SELECTIONS FROM BEDE'S HISTORY 13
declared to the I^ritons that they could not for the future
undertake such troublesome expeditions for their sake,
advising them rather to handle their weapons like men,
and undertake themselves the charge of engaging their
enemies, who would not prove too powerful for them un-
less they were deterred by cowardice ; and, thinking that
it might be some help to the allies whom they were forced
to abandon, they built a strong stone wall ^ from sea to sea,
in a straight line between the towns that had been there
built for fear of the enemy, and not far from the trench
of Severus.2 This famous wall,'^ which is still to be seen,
was built at the public and private expense, the Britons
also lending their assistance. It is eight feet in breadth
and twelve in height,* in a straight line from east to
west, as is still visible to beholders. This being finished,
they gave that dispirited people good advice, with patterns
to furnish them with arms. Besides, they built towers on
the seacoast to the southward, at proper distances, where
their ships were, because there also the irruptions of the
barbarians were apprehended, and so took leave of their
friends, never to return again.'^
After their departure, the Scots and Picts, understand-
ing that they had declared they would come no more,
speedily returned, and growing more confident than they
had been before, occupied all the northern and farthest
part of the island, as far as the wall. Hereupon a timor-
ous guard was placed upon the wall, where they jjined
1 Readers of romance may be interested to compare Kipling, Puck of
Pook's Jim, pp. 15.V4.
2 Rather of Hadrian (a.d. 120).
» From Wallsend, 4 miles N.E. of Newcastle, to Bowness, 12 miles N.W.
of Carlisle (Moberly).
* ' In the portions which now remain it rarely exceeds five or six feet in
height' {Quart. Rev. 107. m).
5 Probably 41H a.d. (Moberly).
14 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
away day and night in the utmost fear. On the other
side, the enemy attacked them with hooked weapons, by
which the cowardly defenders were dragged from the
wall, and dashed against the ground. At last, the Britons,
forsaking their cities and w^all, took to flight and were
dispersed. The enemy pursued, and the slaughter was
greater than on any former occasion ; for the wretched
natives were torn in pieces by their enemies, as lambs are
torn by wild beasts. Thus, being expelled their dwellings
and possessions, they saved themselves from starvation by
robbing and plundering one another, adding to the calami-
ties occasioned by foreigners by their own domestic broils,
till the whole country was left destitute of food, except
such as could be procured in the chase.
4. THE COMING OF THE ENGLISH i (a. d. 450-456)
Bk. 1, chap. 152
In the year of our Lord 449,^ Martian being made
Emperor with Valentinian — the forty-sixth from Augus-
tus — ruled the empire seven years. Then the nation of
the Angles, or Saxons, being invited by the aforesaid
king,^ arrived in Britain with three long ships, and had a
place assigned them to reside in by the same king, in the
eastern part of the island, that they might thus appear
to be fighting for the country, while their real intentions
were to enslave it. Accordingly they engaged with the
enemy, who were come from the north to give battle, and
obtained the victory ; which being known at home in
their own country, as also the fertility of the country
1 Cf . Green, Tlie Making of England.
2 Chiefly from Gildas. 3 Really 450.
4 Tlie legendary Vortigern; for Gerontius, his historical couuterpart,
see Plummer 2. 23.
SELECTIONS FROM BEDE'S HISTORY 15
and the cowardice of the Britons, a more considerable
fleet was quickly sent over, bringing a still greater number
of men, which, being added to the former, made up an
invincible army. The newcomers received of the Britons
a place to inhabit, upon condition that they should wage
war against their enemies for the peace and security of the
country, while the Britons agreed to furnish them with pay.
Those who came over were of the tliree most powerful
nations of Germany — Saxons, Angles, and Jutes. From
the Jutes are descended the people of Kent and of the
Isle of Wight, and those also in the province of the West
Saxons who are to this day called Jutes, seated opposite
to the Isle of Wight. From the Saxons — that is, the
country which is now called Old Saxony ^ — came the
East Saxons, the South Saxons, and the West Saxons.
From the Angles — that is, the country which is called
Angulus,^ and whicli is said to remain desert from that
time to this day, between the provinces of the Jutes and
the Saxons — are descended the East Angles, the Midland
Angles, the Mercians, all the race of the Northumbrians,
that is, of those nations that dwell on the north side of the
river Humber, and the other nations of the Angles. The
first two commanders are said to have been Hengist and
Horsa; of whom Horsa, being afterwards slain in battle
by the Britons, was buried in the eastern parts of Kent,
where a monument bearing liis name is still in exist-
ence. They were the sons of Wihtgils, son of Witta, son
of Wecta, son of Woden ; from whose stock the royal lines
of many provinces deduce their original.
In a short time, swarms of the aforesaid nations came
over into the island, and they began to increase so much
1 Nearly the modern Holstein (^Nloberly).
2 Approximately Sclileswig.
16 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
that they became terrible to the natives themselves who
had invited them. Then, having on a sudden entered
into league with the Picts, whom they had by this time
repelled by the force of their arms, they began to turn
their weapons against their confederates. At first they
obliged them to furnish a greater quantity of provisions ;
and, seeking an occasion to quarrel, protested that unless
more plentiful supphes were brought them, they would
break the confederacy, and ravage all the island ; nor
were they backward in putting their threats in execution.
In short, the fire kindled by the hands of these heathen
proved God's just revenge for the crimes of the people,
not unlike that which, being once lighted by the Chal-
deans, consumed the walls and city of Jerusalem.^ For
the barbarous conquerors acting here in the same manner,
or rather the just Judge ordaining that they should so
act, they plundered all the neighboring cities and country,
spread the conflagration from the eastern to the western
sea without any opposition, and covered almost every part
of the devoted island. Public as well as private struc-
tures were overturned ; the priests were everywhere slain
before the altars ; the prelates and the people, without any
respect of persons, were destroyed with fire and sword ; nor
was there any to bury those who had been thus cruelly
slaughtered. Some of the miserable remainder, being taken
in the mountains, were butchered in heaps. Others, spent
with hunger, came forth and submitted themselves to the
enemy for food, being destined to undergo perpetual servi-
tude, if they were not killed even upon the spot. Some,
with sorrowful hearts, fled beyond the seas. Others, con-
tinuing in their own country, led a miserable life in fear
and anxiety among the woods, rocks, and mountains.
1 2 Kings 25. 9, 10 j Jer. 52. 13, 14.
SELECTIONS FROM BEDE'S HISTORY 17
5. A VICTORY FOR THE BRITONS
Bk. 1, chap. 16 i
Wlien the victorious army, having destroyed and dis-
persed the natives, had returned home to their own settle-
ments, the Britons began by degrees to take heart and
gather strength, sallying out of the lurking-places where
they had concealed themselves, and unanimously implor-
ing the divine assistance, that they might not utterly be
destroyed. They had at that time for their leader Am-
brosius Aurelius, a modest man, who alone, by chance, of
the Eoman nation had survived the storm in which his
parents, who were of the royal race, had perished. Under
him the Britons revived, and offering battle to the victors,
by the help of God came off victorious. From that day
sometimes the natives, and sometimes their enemies pre-
vailed, till the year ^ of the siege of Mount Badon, when
they made no small slaughter of those invaders, about
forty-four years after their arrival in England.
6. THE SENDING OF AUGUSTINE (a.d. 596)
Bk. 1, chap. 23
In the year of our Lord 582, Maurice, the fifty-fourth
from Augustus, ascended the throne, and reigned twenty-
one years. In the tenth year of his reign, Gregory, a man
renowned for learning and behavior, was promoted to the
apostolical see of Eome, and presided over it thirteen
years, six months, and ten days. He, being moved by
divine inspiration, in the fourteenth year of the same
emperor, and about the one hundred and fiftieth after
the coming of the English into Britain, sent the servant
1 Condensed from Gildas. 2 About 493 (Plummer).
18 AVORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
of God, Augustine, and with him several other monks
who feared the Lord, to preach the word of God to the
English nation.
They having, in obedience to the pope's commands,
undertaken that work, were seized on their journey with
a sudden fear, and began to think of returning home
rather than proceed to a barbarous, fierce, and luibelieving
nation, to whose very language they were strangers ; and
tliis they unanimously agreed was the safest course. In
short, they sent back Augustine, who had been a})pointed
to be consecrated bishop in case they were received by
the English, that he might by humble entreaty obtain of
the blessed Gregory that they should not be compelled to
undertake so dangerous, toilsome, and uncertain a journey.
The pope, in reply, sent them a liortatory epistle, persuad-
ing them to proceed in the work of the word, and rely on
the assistance of God. The form of this letter was as
follows :
' Gregory, the servant of the servants of God} to the serv-
ants of our Lord. Forasmuch as it had been better not
to begm a good work than to think of desisting from that
which has been begun, it behooves you, my beloved sons,
to fultil the good work which, by the help of oiu' Lord,
you have undertaken. Let not, therefore, the toil of the
journey nor the tongues of evil-speaking men deter you ;
but with all possible earnestness and zeal perform that
which, by God's direction, you have undertaken, being
assured that much labor is followed b}* an eternal reward.
When Augustine, your chief, returns, whom we also con-
stitute your abbot, humbly obey him in all things, know-
ing that whatsoever you shall do by his direction will in
all respects be available to your souls. Almighty God
1 Gregory was the first pope to assume this style (Plummer).
SELECTIONS FROM BEDE'S HISTORY 19
protect you with His grace, and grant that I may see in
the heavenly country the fruits of your labor, inasmuch
as, though 1 cannot labor with you, I shall partake in the
joy of the reward, because I am at least willing to labor.
God keep you in safety, my most beloved sons. Dated
this 23d of July, in the fourteenth year of the reign of
our most pious Emperor Mauritius Tiberius, the thirteenth
year after the consulship of our said lord, in the fourteenth
indiction.'
7. THE ARRIVAL OF AUGUSTINE (a.d. 507)
Bk. 1, chap. 25
Augustine, thus strengthened by the confirmation of
the blessed father Gregory, returned to the work of the
word with the servants of Christ, and arrived in Britain.
The powerful ^thelbert was at that time king of Kent.
He had extended his dominions as far as the great river
H umber, by which the Southern Saxons are divided from
the Northern. On the east of Kent is the large Isle of
Thanet, containing, according to the English way of reck-
oning, six hundred hides,^ divided from the other land by
the river Wantsum,^ wliich is about three furlongs over,
and fordable only in two places, for both mouths of it
run into the sea. In this island landed the servant of our
Lord, Augustine, and his companions, being, as is reported,
nearly forty men.
They had, by order of the blessed Pope Gregory, taken
interpreters of the nation of the Franks, and sending to
1 ' The amount considered adequate for the support of one free family
with its dependants. . . . The general conclusion appears to be that it was
normally 12() acres ; but the size of the acre itself varied ' {New Eng. Diet.).
Thanet actually contains less than 30,000 acres, including tidal water and
foreshore.
2 The lower course of the river Stour, below Stourmouth (Moberly).
20 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
^thelbert, signified that they were come from Eome and
brought, a joyful message, which most undoubtedly as-
sured to all that took advantage of it everlasting joys in
heaven, and a kiagdom that would never end with the
living and true God. The king haviug heard this, ordered
that they should remain in the island where they had
landed, and that they should be furnished with all neces-
saries, till he should consider what to do with them. For
he had before heard of the Christian religion, having a
Christian wife of the royal family of the Franks, called
Bertha,^ whom he had received from her parents upon
condition that she should be permitted to practise her
religion with the bishop Liudhard, who was sent with her
to preserve her faith.
Some days after, the king came into the island, and
sittiug in the open air, ordered Augustine and liis com-
panions to be brought into his presence. For he had taken
precaution that they should not come to him in any house,
lest, according to an ancient superstition, if they practised
any magical arts, they might impose upon him, and so get
the better of him. But they came furnished with divine,
not with diabolic virtue, bearing a silver cross for their
banner,^ and the image of our Lord and Saviour pamted on
a board ; and, singing htanies, they offered up their
prayers to the Lord for the eternal salvation both of
themselves and of those to whom they were come. When
they had sat down, pursuant to the king's commands, and
preached to him and his attendants there present the
word of life, the king answered thus : ' Your words and
promises are very fair, but as they are new to us and of
uncertain import, I cannot approve of them so far as to
1 Daughter of Charibert, King of Paris.
2 See Wordsworth, EccL Sonnets 14.
SELECTIONS FROM BEDE'S HISTORY 21
forsake that which I have so long followed with the
whole English nation. But because you are come from
far into my kingdom, and, as I conceive, are desirous to
impart to us those things which you believe to be true
and most beneficial, we will not molest you, but give
you favorable entertainment, and take care to supply you
with your necessary sustenance ; nor do we forbid you
to preach and gain as many as you can to your rehgion.'
Accordingly he permitted them to reside in the city of
Canterbury, w^hich was the -metropohs of all his domin-
ions, and, pursuant to his promise, besides allowing them
sustenance, did not refuse them liberty to preach. It is
reported that as they drew near to the city, after their
manner, with the holy cross and the image of our sov-
ereign Lord and King, Jesus Christ, they sang in con-
cert this litany : ^ ' We beseech Thee, O Lord, in all Thy
mercy, that Thy fury and Thine anger be turned away
from tliis city, and from Thy holy house, because we
have sinned. Alleluia.'
8. AUGUSTINE'S MANNER OF LIFE (a.d. 597)
Bk. 1, chap. 26
As soon as they entered the dwelling-place assigned
them, they began to imitate the course of life practised m
the primitive church : applying themselves to frequent
prayer, watching, and fasting ; preaching the word of life
to as many as they could ; despising all worldly things,
as not belonging to them ; receiving only their necessary
food from those they taught ; living themselves in all
respects conformably to what they prescribed to others ;
1 ' A pathetic antiphon belonging to the Rogation days ' (Bright, Early
Eng. Church Hist., p. 48), founded upon Dan. 9. 16.
22 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
and being always disposed to suffer any adversity, and
even to die, for that truth which they preached. In short,
several beheved and were baptized, admiring the sim-
plicity of their innocent life and the sweetness of their
heavenly doctrine. There was on the east side of the
city a church ^ dedicated to the honor of St. Martin, built
while the Romans were still in the island, wherein the
queen, who, as has been said before, was a Christian, used
to pray. In tliis they first began to meet, to sing, to pray,
to say mass, to preach, and to baptize, till the king, being
converted to the faith, allowed them to preach openly, and
build or repair churches m all places.
Wlien he, among the rest, induced by the unspotted
life of these holy men and their dehghtful promises,
which by many miracles they proved to be most certain,
believed and was baptized, greater numbers began daily
to flock together to hear the word, and, forsaking their
heathen rites, to associate themselves by faith to the unity
of the holy church of Christ. Their conversion the king
so far encouraged as that he compelled none to embrace
Christianity, but only showed more affection to the believ-
ers, as to his fellow-citizens in the heavenly kmgdom.
For he had learned from his instructors and leaders unto
salvation that the service of Christ ought to be voluntary,
not brought about by compulsion. Nor was it long before
he gave his teachers a settled residence in his metropolis
of Canterbury, with such possessions of different kinds as
were necessary for their subsistence.
1 Dean Stanley says {Hint. Mem. Canterbury, p. 31) : ' The present church,
old as it is, is of far later date, but it unquestionably retains in its walls
some of the Roman bricks and Roman cement of Bertha's chapel. ... Of
all the great Christian saints of whom she [Bertha] had heard in France
before she came to England, the most famous was St. Martin of Tours';
and hence Stanley suggests that the Canterbury church may have been
named from him.
SELECTIONS FROM BEDE'S HISTORY 23
9. POPE GREGORY SENDS MORE LABORERS (a.d. 601)
Bk. 1, chap. 29
Moreover, the same Pope Gregory, hearing from Bishop
Augustine that he had a great harvest and but few
laborers, sent to him, together with his aforesaid mes-
sengers, several fellow-laborers and ministers of the word,
of whom the first and principal were Mellitus, Justus,
Paulinus, and Eufinianus, and by them all things in gen-
eral that were necessary for the worship and service of the
church — namely, sacred vessels and cloths for the altars,
ornaments for the churches, and vestments for the priests
and clerks, as likewise relics of the holy apostles and
martyrs ; besides many books. He also sent a letter,
wherein he signified that he had transmitted the pall to
him, and at the same time directed how he should consti-
tute bishops in Britain.
10. THE LIFE OF POPE GREGORY
Bk. 2, chap. 1
At this time, that is, in the year of our Lord 605,^ the
blessed Pope Gregory, after having most gloriously gov-
erned the Eoman and apostolic see thirteen years, six
months, and ten days, died, and was translated to the
eternal see of the heavenly kingdom. Of whom, in regard
that he by his zeal converted our nation, the English, from
the power of Satan ^ to the faith of Christ, it behooves us
to discourse more at large in our Ecclesiastical History, for
we may and ought rightly to call him our apostle ; because,
whereas he bore the pontifical power over all the world,
1 An error for 004. 2 Acts 26. 18.
24 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
and was placed over the churches ah-eady converted to the
faith of truth, he made our nation, till then given up to
idols, the church of Christ, so that we may be allowed
thus to attribute to liim the character of an apostle ; for
though he is not an apostle to others, yet he is so to us ;
for we are the seal of his apostleship in the Lord.^
He was by nation a Roman, son of Gordian, deducing
his race from ancestors that w^ere not only noble, but
religious. And Felix,^ once bishop of the same apostolical
see, a man of great honor in Christ and his church, was
an ancestor of his. Nor did he exercise the nobility of
religion with less virtue of devotion than his parents and
kindred. But that worldly nobility w^hich he seemed to
have, he entirely used, by the lielp of the divine grace, to
gain the honor of eternal dignity ; for soon quitting his
secular habit, he repaired to a monastery, wherein he
began to behave himself with so much grace of perfec-
tion that — as he was afterwards wont with tears to tes-
tify — his mind was above all transitory things ; that he
rose beyond all that is subject to change ; that he used to
think of nothing but what was heavenly; that, while
detained by the body, he by contemplation broke through
the bonds of flesh ; and that he loved death, which to
almost all men is a punishment, as the entrance into life,
and the reward of his labors. This he said of himself, not
to boast of his progress in virtue, but rather to bewail
the decay which, as he was wont to aver, he imagined he
sustained through the pastoral care. In short, when he
was one day in private discoursing with Peter, his deacon,
after having enumerated the former virtues of his mind,
he with grief added : ^ ' But now, on account of the pastoral
1 1 Cor. 9. 2. 2 Bishop of Rome, 48;V492.
3 Gregory's Dialogues, Bk. 1, Prol.
SELECTIONS FROM BEDE'S* HISTORY 25
care, it is entangled with the affairs of laymen, and, after
so beautiful an appearance of repose, is defiled with the
dust of earthly action. And after having wasted itself by
condescending to many things that are without, when it
desires the inward things, it returns to them less qualified
to enjoy them. I therefore consider what I endure, I con-
sider what I have lost, and when I behold that loss, what
I bear appears the more grievous.'
This the holy man said out of the excess of his humility.
But it becomes us to believe that he lost nothing of his
monastic perfection by his pastoral care, but rather that he
improved the more through the labor of converting many
than he had by the repose of his former tranquil life, and
chiefly because, while exercising the pontifical function,
he provided to have his house made a monastery. And
when first drawn from the monastery, ordained to the
ministry of the altar, and sent as nuncio to Constantinople
from the apostolic see, though he now mixed with the
people of the palace, yet he intermitted not his former
heavenly life ; for, some of the brethren of his monastery
having out of brotherly charity followed him to the royal
city, he kept them for the better following of regular
observances — in order, namely, that at all times, by
their example, as he writes himself,^ he might be held
fast to the calm shore of prayer, as it were with the
cable of an anchor, while he was tossed up and down by
the continual waves of worldly affairs; and daily among
them, by the solace of studious reading, strengthen his
mind when it was shaken with temporal concerns. By
their company he was not only fortified against earthly
assaults, but more and more inflamed to the exercises of
the heavenly life.
1 Epistle to Leander, Bishop of Seville.
26 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
For they persuaded him to give a mystical exposition
of the book of holy Job,^ wliich is involved in great
obscurity ; nor could he refuse to undertake that work,
which brotherly affection imposed on him for the future
benefit of many ; but in a wonderful manner, in five and
thirty books of exposition, taught how that same book is
to be understood literally ; how to be referred to the
mysteries of Christ and the church ; and in what sense
it is to be adapted to every one of the faithful. This
work he began when legate in the royal city, but finished
it at Eome after being made pope. Whilst he was still
in the royal city, he, by the assistance of the divine grace
of catholic truth, crushed in its first rise a heresy newly
started, concerning the state of our resurrection. . . .
He likewise composed another notable book, called
the Pastoral^ wherein he manifestly showed what sort of
persons ought to be preferred to govern the church, how
such rulers ought to live, with how much discretion to
instruct every one of their hearers, and how seriously to
reflect every day on their own frailty. He also wrote
forty homilies on the Gospel, which he divided equally
into two volumes ; and composed four books of dialogues,^
into which, at the request of Peter, his deacon, he col-
lected the miracles of the saints whom he either knew
or had heard to be most renowned in Italy, for an
example to posterity to lead their lives ; to the end that,
as he taught in his books of expositions what virtues
ought to be labored for, so, by describing the miracles of
saints, he might make known the glory of those virtues.
He further, in twenty-two homilies, discovered how much
light there is concealed in the first and last parts of the
1 Known as the Moralia. 2 gee pp. 100 ff .
3 Translated into Old English, and recently pnhlished.
SELECTIONS FROM BEDE'S HISTORY 27
prophet Ezekiel, which seemed the most obscure. Besides
which, he wrote the Book of Answers to the questions of
Augustine, the first bishop of the English nation, as we
have shown above, inserting the same book entire in this
history ; besides the useful little Synodical Book, which
he composed with the bishops of Italy on the necessary
affairs of the church ; and also familiar letters to certain
persons. And it is the more wonderful that he could
write so many and such large volumes, considering that
almost all the time of his youth, to use his own words,
he was often tormented with pains in his bowels and a
weakness of his stomach, while he was continually suffer-
ing from slow fever. But whereas at the same time he
o
carefully reflected that, as the Scripture testifies,^ every
son that is received is scourged, the more he labored
and was depressed under those present evils, the more he
assured himself of liis eternal salvation.
Thus much may be said of his immortal genius, which
could not be quenched by such severe bodily pains ; for
other popes apphed themselves to building or adorning
churches with gold and silver, but Gregory was entirely
intent upon gaining souls. Whatsoever money he had, he
diligently took care to distribute and give to the poor,
that his righteousness might endure for ever, and his
horn be exalted with honor ; ^ so that what blessed Job
said might be truly said of him : ^ ' AVlien the ear heard
me, then it blessed me,' etc. . . .
To these works of piety and righteousness this also may
be added, that he saved our nation, by the preachers he
sent hither, from the teeth of the old enemy, and made it
partaker of eternal liberty; in whose faith and salvation
1 Cf. Heb. 12. 6. 2 pg. 112. 9.
3 Job 29. 11-17 : 31.16-18.
28 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
rejoicing, and worthily commending the same, he, in liis
exposition on holy Job, says : ^ ' Behold, a tongue of Bri-
tain, which only knew how to utter barbarous language,
has lono^ since beo;un to resound the Hebrew Alleluia.
Behold, the once swelling ocean now serves prostrate at
the feet of the saints ; and its barbarous motions, which
earthly princes could not subdue with the sword, are now,
through the fear of God, bound by the mouths of priests
with words only ; and he that when an intidel stood not
in awe of fighting troops, now, a believer, fears the tongues
of the humble. For by reason that the \irtue of the divine
knowledge is infused into it by the heavenly w^ords it has
hearkened to, and by conspicuous miracles, it is curbed
by the dread of the same Godhead, so that it fears to act
wickedly, and bends all its desires to arrive at the grace
of eternity.' In which words St. Gregory declares this also,
that St. Augustine and his companions brought the Eng-
lish to receive the truth not only by the preaching of
words, but also by the showing of heavenly signs. The holy
Pope Gregory, among other thiugs, caused masses to be
celebrated in the churches of the apostles Peter and Paul,
over their bodies. And in the celebration of masses, he
added three phrases,^ full of great perfection : ' Dispose
our days in thy peace, snatch us from eternal damnation,
and rank us in the number of thy elect.'
He governed the church in the days of the Emperors
Mauritius and Phocas, but passing out of this life in the
second year of the same Phocas, he departed to the true
hfe which is in heaven. His body was buried in the
church of St. Peter the apostle, before the sacristy, on
1 Bk. 27. chap. 11.
2 On Gre.iiory's liturgical reforms see the Diet. Chr. Biog. 2. 788-790;
Diet. Chr. Ayitiqq. s.v. Sacramentary (see Plummer's notes on this passage,
and on 1. 27, p. 47).
SELECTIONS FROM BEDE'S HISTORY 29
the 12th day of March,^ to rise one day in the same body
in glory with the other pastors of Holy Church. On his
tomb was written this epitaph :
Earth, take that body which at first you gave,
Till God again shall raise it from the grave.
His soul amidst the stars finds heavenly day ;
In vain the gates of darkness make essay
On him whose death but leads to life the way.
To the dark tomb this prelate though decreed,
Lives in all places by his pious deed.
Before his bounteous board pale Hunger fled ;
To warm the poor he fleecy garments spread ;
And to secure their souls from Satan's power,
He taught by sacred precepts every hour ;
Nor only taught, but first the example led,
Lived o'er his rules, and acted what he said.
To English Saxons Christian truth he taught.
And a believing flock to heaven he brought.
This was thy work and study, this thy care.
Offerings to thy Redeemer to prepare ;
For these to heavenly honors raised on high,^
Where thy reward of labors ne'er shall die.
Nor is the account of St. Gregory which has been
handed down to us by the tradition of our ancestors to
be passed by in silence, in relation to his motives for
taking such interest in the salvation of our nation. It
is reported that some merchants, having just arrived at
Rome on a certain day,'^ exposed many things for sale in
1 A.D. 604.
2 This line, like much of the epitaph, might be more exactly rendered
than it has been by Giles. One feels the old Roman spirit in the line :
Hisqne Dei consul factus laetare triumphis.
We may translate the last two lines :
God's consul no-n-, rejoice in triumph won;
Unending meed thou hast for labors done.
3 Between 585 and 588 a.d.
30 WORKS :nu.ixly historical
the market-place, and abundance of people resorted thither
to buy. Gregory himself went with the rest, and, among
other things, some boys were set to sale,^ their bodies white,
their countenances comely, and their hair of remarkable
beauty. Having viewed them, he asked, as is said, from
what country or nation they were brought, and was told,
from the island of Britain, whose inhabitants were of such
personal appearance.^ He agaiu inquired whether those
islanders were Christians, or still involved in the errors of
heathendom : and was informed that they were heathens.
Then fetching a deep sigh from the bottom of his heart,
' Alas ! what a pity,' said he, ' that the author of darkness
should possess men of such fair countenances, and that,
being remarkable for such grace of exterior, their minds
should be void of inward grace ! ' He therefore again asked
what was the name of that nation, and was answered that
they were called Angles. * Right,' said he, ' for they have
an angehc face, and it becomes such to be coheirs with
the angels in heaven. What is the name,' proceeded he,
' of the province from which they are brought ? ' It was
rephed that the natives of that pro\'inc« were caUed Deiri.
'Truly are they De ira,' said he, * snatched from wrath,
and caUed to the mercy of Christ. — How is the king of
that pro\Tnc€ called?' They told him his name was ^Ui ;
and he, playing on the name, said, ' Alleluia, the praise of
God the Creator ought to be sung in those parts.'
Then repairing to the bishop of the Roman and apos-
tolic see — for he was not yet himself made pope — he
entreated him to send some muiLsters of the word into
Britain to the nation of the Enghsh, by whom it might
1 In a letter to a certain Candidas, which has been assigned to September,
595, Gregory directs him to purchase English boys, of about seventeen or
eighteen years of age. for training up in monasteries.
* See Wordsworth, Ecd. Sonnets 13.
SELECTIOXS FROM BEDE'S HISTORY 31
be converted to Christ ; declaring himself ready to under-
take that work, by the assistance of God, if the apostolic
pope should think fit to have it so done. Which not h>etng
then able to perform — because, though the pope was will-
ing to grant his request, jet the citizens of Eome could not
be brought to consent that he should depart so far from
the city — as soon as he was himself made pop>e, he carried
out the long-desired work, sending indeed others as preach-
ers, but himself by his prayers and exhortations assisting
the preaching, that it might be successful. This account,
as we have received it from the ancients, we have thought
fit to insert hi our Ecclesiastical History.
11. KIXG EDAVIX OF XoRTHUMBRL\ E3IBRACES
CHRISTIAXITY (^a.d. 627)
Bk. 2. chap. 13
The king, hearing these words, answered that he was
both ^villing and bound to receive the faith which he
taught, but that he would confer about it with his prin-
cipal friends and counselors,^ to the end that if they also
were of his opinion, they might all together be hallowed
in Christ, the Fountaiu of life. Paulinus consentiug, the
king did as he said : for, holding a council with the wise
men, he asked of every one in particular what he thought
of the new doctrine and worship of the Deity that was
preached. To whom the chief of his own priests, Coifi,
immediately answered : ' O kiug, consider what this is
which is now preached to us ; for I verily declare to you
what I have learned for certain, that the reliofion which
we have hitherto held has no ^'i^tue or utility in it. For
none of your people has applied himself more diligently
1 OE. icitan, from which icitenagemot.
32 WORKS :maixly historical
to the worship of our gods than I ; and yet there are
many who receive greater favors from you, and obtain
greater dignities than 1, and are more prosperous in all
their undertakings. Xow if our gods were good for any-
thing, they would rather assist me, who haAO been more
careful to serve them. It remains, therefore, that if upon
examination you find those new doctrines, which are now
preached to us, better and more etlicacious, we iunucdi-
ately receive them without delay.'
Another of the king's chief men, assenting to his prudent
words and exhortations, straightway added :^ 'O king, the
present life of man on earth seems to me, in comparison
with the time of which we are ignorant, as if you were
sitting at a feast with your chief men and thanes in the
winter time, and a lire were kindled in the midst and the
hall warmed, while everywhere outside there were raging
whirlwinds of wintry rain and snow ; and as if then there
came a stray '^ sparrow, and swiftly flew through the house,
entering at one door and passing out through another. As
long as he is inside, he is not bufteted by the winter's
storm ; but in the twinklmg of an eye the lull for him is
over, and he speeds from winter back to winter again, and
is gone from your sight. So this life of man appeareth
for a little time;^ but what cometh after, or what went
before, we know not. If therefore this new doctrine con-
tains something more certain, it seems justly to deserve
to be followed.' The other elders and king's counselors
spoke, by divine inspiration, to the same effect.
But Coiti added that he wished more attentively to
hear Paulinus discourse concerning the God whom he
1 Cf. Wordsworth, Eccl. Sonnets W.
2 This seems to be suggested by unu$ ex passer um. For the figure cf.
Hos. 9. 11.
- Jas. 4. U.
SELECTIONS FROM BEDE'S HISTORY 33
preached ; which he having by the king's command per-
formed, Coifi, hearing his words, cried out : * I have long
since been sensible that there was nothing in that which
we worshiped, because the more diligently I sought after
truth in that worship, the less I found it. But now I
freely confess that such truth evidently apj>ears in this
preaching as can confer on us the gifts of life, of salva-
tion, and of eternal hajjpiness. For which reason I advise,
O king, that we instantly abjure and set fire to those
temples and altars which we have consecrated without
reaping any benefit from them.' In short, the king
publicly gave his license to the blessed PauKnus to preach
the Gospel, and, renouncing idolatry, declared that he re-
ceived the faith of Christ ; and when he inquired of the
above-mentioned high priest who should first profane the
altars and temples of their idols,^ with the enclosures that
were about them, he answered, ' I. Who is fitter to destroy
as an example to all others those things w^hich I worshijjed
in my folly and ignorance, than I, acting upon the wis-
dom which has been given me by the true God ? ' Then
immediately, casting away his vain superstition, he desired
the king to furnish him with arms, and a stallion, and,
mounting the same, set out to destroy the idols — for it
had not been lawful for the high priest to carry arms, or
to ride except on a mare. Having, therefore, girt a sword
about him, he took a spear in his hand, mounted the
king's stallion, and proceeded to the idols. The multitude,
beholding it, concluded he was insane ; but he lost no
time, for as soon as he drew near the temple he profaned
it, casting into it the spear which he held ; and, rejoic-
ing in the knowledge of the worship of the true God, he
1 Cf. Plummer's note on f ana idolorum, 1. 30, and Cook's note on line
485, The Christ of Cynewulf.
34 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
commanded his companions to destroy the temple, with all
its enclosures, and burn them with fire. The place where
the idols were is still shown, not far from York to the
eastward, beyond the river Derwent, and is now called
Godmundingham,^ where the high priest, by the inspira-
tion of the true God, polluted and destroyed the altars
which he had himself consecrated.^
12. THE BAPTISM OF KIXG EDAVIX (a.d. 627)
Bk. 2, chap. II
King Edwin, therefore, with all the nobihty of the
nation,'^ and a large number of the common sort, received
the faith and the wasliing of regeneration in the eleventh
year of his reign, which is the year of the incarnation of
our Lord 627, and about one hundred and eighty after
the coming of the Enghsh into Britain. He was baptized
at Y^ork on the holy day of Easter, being the 12th of
April,* in the church of Peter the apostle,^ which he him-
self had built of timber while he was undergoing the
training of a catechumen and being prepared to receive
baptism. In that city also he appointed the see of the
bishopric of his instructor and bishop, Paulinus. But as
soon as he was baptized, he took care, by the direction of
the same Paulinus, to build in the same place a larger
and nobler church of stone,^ in the midst whereof that
1 Now Goodmauham, 1^ miles N.E. of Market Weighton.
2 An adaptation of Virgil, ^n. 2. 501-2.
8 Including the future Abbess Hild (Bede 4. 23), the patroness of Cfed-
mon. See p. 51.
4 Bright {Early Eng. Church Hist., p. 118) says Easter Eve, April 11.
5 On the site of the present cathedral (Bright, p. 117).
6 For the material of Saxon churches, see Plummer's note, and cf . Cook's
note on line 27, Tlie Christ of Cyneioulf.
SELECTIONS FROM BEDE'S HISTORY 35
same oratory which he had first erected should be enclosed.^
Having therefore laid the foundation, he began to build
the church square, encompassing the former oratory. But
before the whole was raised to the proper height, the
wicked assassination of the king left that work to be
finished by Oswald his successor.
13. KING EDWIN'S RULE (a.d. 617-633)
Bk. 2, chap. 16
It is reported that there was then such perfect peace
in Britain, wheresoever the dominion of King Edwin
extended,^ that, as is still proverbially said, a woman with
her new-born babe might walk throughout the island
from sea to sea, without receiving any harm. That king
took such care for the good of liis nation that in several
places where he had seen clear springs near the high-
ways he caused stakes to be fixed, with brass cups hang-
ing from them, for the refreshment of travelers ; nor durst
any man touch them for any other purpose than that for
which they were designed, either through the dread they
had of the king, or for the affection which they bore
him. His dignity was so great throughout his dominions
that his banners were not only borne before him in battle,
but even in time of peace, when he rode about his cities,
towns, or provinces with his thanes, the standard-bearer
was wont to go before liim. Moreover, when he walked
along the streets, that sort of banner which the Eomans
call tufa, and the English, thimf, was in like manner
borne before him.
1 This wooden sanctuary was carefully preserved, and enriched with
splendid altars and vessels by Archbishop Albert (Bright, p. 119).
2 It extended at least as far as Edinburgh, Edwin's Burgh.
36 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
14. KIXG OSWALD AT HEAYENFIELD (a.d. 635)
Bk. 3, chap. 2
The place is sllo^vIl to this day, and held in much ven-
eration, where Oswald, being about to engage, erected the
sign of the holy cross, and on his knees prayed to God
that he would assist his worshipers in their great distress.
It is further reported that, the cross being made in haste,
and the hole dug in which it was to be fixed, the king
himself, full of faith, laid hold of it, placed it in the hole,
and held it with both his hands till it was set fast by
soldiers' casting in earth. This done, he raised liis voice,
and cried to his whole army : ' Let us all kneel, and jointly
beseech the true and living God Almighty that of His
mercy He will defend us from oar fierce and haughty
enemy, for He knows that we have undertaken a just war
for the safety of our nation.' All did as he had commanded,
and, advancing towards the enemy with the first dawn of
day, they obtained the \dctory, as their faith deserved.^
In that place of prayer very many miraculous cures are
known to have been performed as a token and memorial
of the king's faith, for even to this day many are wont to
cut off small chips from the wood of the holy cross, which
being put into water, men or cattle drinking thereof, or
sprinkled with that water, are immediately restored to
health.
The place in the English tongue is called Heavenfield,^
or the Heavenly Field, which name it formerly received
as a presage of what was afterwards to happen, denoting
1 Bright says (p. 132) that this field * witnessed not only the death-blow
to Welsh schemes of reconquest, but the definitive triumph of the Christian
cause in Northumbria.'
2 Where is now St. Oswald's Chapel, about eight miles north of Hex-
ham ; or perhaps Hallington, a mile or so east of St. Oswald's.
SELECTIONS FROM BEDE'S HISTORY 37
that there the heavenly trophy would be erected,^ the
heavenly victory begun, and heavenly miracles be wrought
to this day. The same place is near the wall with which
the Romans formerly enclosed the island from sea to sea,
to restrain the fury of the barbarous nations, as has been
said before.^
15. THE COMING OF AIDAN (a.d. 635)
Bk. 3, chap. 3
The same Oswald, as soon as he ascended the throne,
being desirous that all his nation should receive the
Christian faith, whereof he had found happy experience
in vanquishing the barbarians, sent to the elders of the
Irish, among whom himself and the soldiers his followers,
when in banishment, had received the sacrament of bap-
tism, desiring they would send him a bishop, by whose
instruction and ministry the people of the Angles which
he governed might be taught the advantages, and receive
the sacraments, of the Christian faith. Nor was he slow
in obtaining what he requested, but received as bishop
Aidan, a man of singular gentleness, piety, and modera-
tion, zealous in the cause of God. . . .
On the arrival of the bishop, the king appointed him
his episcopal see in the isle of Lindisfarne, as he desired ;
tliis place, as the tide flows and ebbs twice a day, is
enclosed by the waves of the sea like an island, and again,
twice in the day, when the shore is left dry, becomes
contiguous to the land. The king, humbly and willingly
in all cases giving ear to his admonitions, industriously
1 See Stevens, Tlie Cross in the Life and Literature of the Anglo-Saxons
{Yale Studies in English), pp. 81 ff.
2 See p. 13.
38 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
applied himself to build and extend tlie cliurcli of Christ
in his kingdom ; wherein, when the bishop, who was not
skilful in the English tongue, preached the gospel, it w^as
most delightful to see the king liimself interpreting the
word of God to his earls and thanes, for he had perfectly
learned the Irish language during his long banishment.
From that time many of the Irish came daily into Britain,
and with great devotion preached the word to those tribes
of the Angles over which King Oswald reigned, and those
among them that had received priest's orders administered
to them the grace of baptism. Churches were built in
several places ; the people joyfully flocked together to
hear the word ; lands were given of the king's bounty to
build monasteries ; and the children of the Angles were
instructed by Irish teachers, together with their elders, in
the pursuits and observance of monastic discipline, since
most of them that came to preach were monks.
16. AIDAN'S MANNER OF LIFE (a.d. 635)
Bk. 3, chap. 5
From this island, from the confraternity of these monks,
was Aidan sent to instruct the province of the Angles in
Christ, having received the dignity of a bishop at the
time when Segeni, abbot and priest, presided over that
monastery ; whence, among other instructions for life, he
left the clergy a most salutary example of abstinence or
continence. It was the highest commendation of his doc-
trine with all men that he taught no otherwise than as he
and his followers were living ; ^ for he neither sought nor
loved anything of this world, but delighted in distributing
1 Cf. Chaucer's * poure persoun ' {Prol. 496 ff.), and Mayor and Lumby's
note on this passage ; see also pp. 21, 242,
SELECTIONS FROM BEDE'S HISTORY 39
immediately among the poor whatsoever was given liim
by the kings or rich men of the world. He was wont to
traverse both town and country on foot, never on horse-
back,i unless compelled by some urgent necessity ; and
wherever in his way he saw any, either rich or poor, he
would turn aside to them, and invite them, if unbelievers,
to embrace the mystery of the faith; or if they were be-
lievers, he would strengthen them in the faith, and stir
them up by words and actions to alms and good works.
His course of life was so different from the slothfulness
of our times that all those who bore him company, whether
tonsured monks or laymen, were employed in study, that
is, either in reachng the Scriptures or in learning Psalms.^
This was the daily employment of liimself and all that
were with him, wheresoever they went; and if it hap-
pened, which was but seldom, that he was invited to eat
with the king, he went with one or two clerks, and hav-
ing taken a small repast, made haste to be gone with them,
either to read or to pray. At that time many rehgious
men and women, stirred up by his example, adopted the
custom of fasting tiU the nmth hour^ on Wednesdays
and Fridays throughout the year, except during the fifty
days after Easter. He never kept silence before the rich
concerning their sins, either out of deference or fear, but
reproved them with severe rebukes. He never -would give
money to the powerful men of the world, but only food,
if he happened to entertain them ; and, on the contrary,
whatsoever gifts of money he received from the rich, he
either distributed, as has been said, for the use of the poor,
or bestowed in ransoming such as had been wrongfully
1 Cf. p. 41.
2 See Plummer's note.
3 Mayor and Lumby say : * The ninth hour proved ultimately too rigor-
ous a limit, and soon was moved backward till it meant midday.'
40 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
sold.i Moreover, he afterwards made many of those he
had ransomed his disciples, and after having taught and
instructed them, advanced them to the order of priesthood.
It is reported that when King Oswald had asked for a
bishop from the Irish province ^ to minister the word of
faith to him and his nation, there was first sent to him
another man of more austere disposition, who, when he
had preached for some time to the people of the Angles
without success — they being loath even to listen to him —
returned home, and in an assembly of the elders reported
that he had been able to accomplish nothing in teacliing
the people to whom he had been sent, because they were
untamable men, and of a stubborn and barbarous dispo-
sition. They, as is testified, seriously debated in a council
what was to be done, being desirous to afford the nation
the salvation for which they were asked, and grieving
that they had not received the preacher sent to them.
Then said Aidan, who was also present m the council, to
the priest under consideration: 'I suspect, brother, that
you were more severe to your unlearned hearers than you
ought to have been, and did not at first, conformably to
the apostolic rule, give them the milk ^ of more easy doc-
trine, till, being by degrees nourished with the word of
God, they should be capable of greater perfection, and be
able to practise God's sublimer precepts.' Having heard
these words, all present, turniug their faces and eyes upon
him, began diligently to discuss what he had said, and
presently concluded that he deserved to be made a bishop,
and ought to be sent to iustruct the unbelieving and un-
learned, since he was found to be endued with singular
discretion, which is the mother of the virtues. Accord-
ingly, having ordained him, they sent liim out to preach ;
1 Cf . p. 30. 2 Meaning lona. s 1 Cor. 3. 2.
SELECTIONS FROM BEDE'S HISTORY 41
and he, as time proved, turned out subsequently to be
adorned with other virtues, as at first he seemed remark-
able for the temperance of his discretion.
17. THE HUMILITY OF KIXG OSWIN
Bk. 3, chap. 14
King Oswin was of a graceful aspect, tall of stature,
affable in discourse, courteous in behavior, and bountiful
to all, whether gentle or simple ; so that he was beloved
by every one for the kingliness of his spirit and his looks,
and for his distinguished merit, and men of the very
first rank came from almost every province to serve him.
Among other virtues and rare endowments, if I may so
express it, humility is said to have been the greatest, as
one example may suffice to prove.
He had given an extraordinarily fine horse to Bishop
Aidan, which he might use either in crossing rivers or in
performing a journey upon any urgent necessity, though
he was wont to travel ordinarily on foot. Some short time
after, a poor man meeting him and asking alms, he imme-
diately dismounted, and ordered the horse, with all its
royal furniture, to be given to the beggar ; for he was
very compassionate, a great friend to the poor, and, as it
were, the father of the wretched. This being told to the
king, he said to the bishop as they chanced to be going
in to dinner : ' Why would you, my lord bishop, give the
poor man that royal horse, which you ought to have kept
for yourself ? Had we not many other horses of less value,
and of other sorts, which would have been good enough
to give to the poor, without giving that horse, which I
had particularly chosen for yourself ? ' To whom the
bishop instantly answered, ' What is it you say, O king ?
42 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
Is that foal of a mare clearer to you than this child of
God ? ' Thereupon they went in to dinner, and the bishop
sat in Ills place; but the king, who was come from hunt-
ing, stood warming himself with his attendants at the
fire. Then on a sudden wliile he was warming himself,
calling to mind what the bishop had said to him, he un-
girt his sword and gave it to a servant, and running to
the bishop, fell down at his feet, beseeching him to forgive
Mm, ' For from this time forward,' said he, ' I will never
speak any more of tliis, nor will I pass judgment on what
or how much of our money you may give to the children
of God.' The bishop feared greatly at this sight, and start-
ing up, raised him, saying that he would be entirely
reconciled to him if he would sit down to meat and
lay aside all sorrow. The king, at the bishop's command
and entreaty, beginning to be merry, the bishop, on the
other hand, grew so melancholy as to shed tears. His
priest then asking him, in the language of Ms country,
which the king and his servants did not understand, why
he wept, ' I know,' said he, ' that the king will not live
long, for I never before saw so humble a king ; whence I
conclude that he will soon be snatched out of this life,
because this people is not worthy of such a ruler.' Not
long after, the bishop's prediction was fulfilled by the
king's death, as has been said above.^ But Bishop Aidan
himself was also taken out of this world, twelve days after
the sla}ing of the kmg he loved, on the 31st of August,^
to receive the eternal reward of Ms labors from our Lord.
1 Oswin had ruled the province of Deira in great prosperity for seven
years when he was murdered by the command of Oswy, king of Bernicia.
Upon this, Deira and Bernicia were permanently united to form the king-
dom of Nortliumbria.
2 A.D. 651.
SELECTIOJs^S FROM BEDE'S HISTORY 43
18. BEDE'S FINAL ESTIMATE OF AIDAN
Bk. 8, chap. 17
I have written thus much concerning the person and
works of the aforesaid Aidan, in no way commending or
approving what he imperfectly understood m relation to
the observance of Easter ; nay, very much detestmg the
same, as I have most manifestly proved in the hook I
have written De Teiiiporibus ^ ; but, like an impartial his-
torian, relating wdiat was done concerning or by him, com-
mending such things as are praiseworthy in his actions,
and preserving the memory thereof for the benefit of my
readers — namely, his love of peace and charity, of con-
tinence and humility ; his mind superior to anger and
avarice, and despising pride and vainglory ; his industry
in keepiQg and teaching the heavenly commandments;
liis diligence in reading and watchiag; his authority
becoming a priest in reproving the haughty and powerful,
and at the same time his tenderness in comforting the
sick, and relieving or defending the poor. To say all in a
few^ words, as near as I could be informed by those that
knew him, he took care to omit none of those things
which he found were to be done, according to the Gospels
or the apostolical or prophetical writmgs, but to the utmost
of his power endeavored to perform them all.
These tilings I much love and admire in the aforesaid
bishop, because I do not doubt that they were well pleas-
ing to God ; but I do not praise or approve his not
observing Easter at the proper time, either through igno-
rance of the canonical time appoiuted, or, if he knew it,
beiug prevailed on by the authority of liis nation not to
follow the same. Yet this I approve in him, that in the
1 Rather the De Temporuni Rattone.
44 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
celebration of his Easter, the object which he had in view
in all he believed, worsliiped, and preached, w^as the same
as ours, that is, the redemption of mankind through the pas-
sion, resurrection, and ascension into heaven of the mediator
between God and man, the man Christ Jesus.^
19. THE CHOICE OF THEODORE AND HADRIAN
(A.D. 667-8)
Bk. 4, chap. 1
There was then in the Niridan monastery, wiiich is not
far from the city of Naples in Campania,^ an abbot called
Hadrian,^ by nation an African, well versed in Holy Writ,
experienced in monastic and ecclesiastical discipline, and
excellently skilled in both the Greek and Latin tongues.
The pope, sending for him, commanded him to accept
the bishopric, and repair to Britain. He answered that
he was unworthy of so great a dignity, but said he could
name another, whose learning and age were fitter for
the episcopal office. And having proposed to the pope a
certain monk belonging to a neighboring monastery of
celibates, whose name was Andrew, the latter was by all
that knew him judged wT)rthy of the bishopric ; but bodily
infirmity prevented his being advanced to the episcopal
station. Then again Hadrian was pressed to accept the
bishopric, but he desired a respite for a time, to see
whether he could find another fit to be ordained bishop.
There was at that time in Eome a monk called Theo-
dore, well known to Hadrian, born at Tarsus in Cilicia, a
man well instructed in secular and sacred literature as
well as in Greek and Latin, of excellent character and
1 1 Tim. 2. 5. 2 n ^-as near the present Monte Cassino.
3 For Hadrian and Theodore, see especially the Diet. Chr. Biog.
SELECTIONS FROM BEDE'S HISTORY 45
venerable age, being sixty-six years old. Hadrian suggested
him to the pope to be ordained bishop, and prevailed, but
upon these conditions : first, that Hadrian himself should
conduct him to Britain, because he had already, for vari-
ous reasons, twice visited Gaul, and was therefore better
acquainted with the way, and was moreover well provided
with men of his own ; and secondly, that he should serve
as his fellow-laborer in teaching, and thus keep careful
watch that Theodore should not, after the manner of the
Greeks, introduce anything contrary to the true faith ^
into the church over which he was to preside. Theodore,
being ordained subdeacon, waited four months for his hair
to grow, that it might be shorn into the shape of a crown ;
for hitherto he had had the tonsure of St. Paul the apostle,
after the manner of the Orientals. He was ordained by
Pope Vitalian in the year of our Lord 668, on Sunday, the
26th of March, and on the 27th of May [668] w^as sent
with Hadrian to Britain.^
20. THE TEACHING OF THEODORE (From a.d.
Bk. 4, chap. 2
Theodore arrived at his church the second year after
his consecration, on Sunday, the 27th of May, and held
the same twenty-one years, three months, and twenty-six
days. Soon after, he visited all the island, wherever the
tribes of the Enghsh inhabited, for he was willingly enter-
tained and heard by all persons ; and, everywhere attended
and assisted by Hadrian, he taught the right rule of life,
and the canonical custom of celebrating Easter. He was
the first archbishop whom all the English church obeyed.
1 See Bright, Earhj Eng. Church Hist., p. 220.
2 Benedict Biscop accompanied tliem ; see Bright, as ahove, p. 221.
46 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
And because both of them were, as has been said before,
well read both in sacred and secular literature, they gath-
ered a crowd of disciples, and there daily flowed from
them rivers of sound learning to water the hearts of their
hearers, insomuch that, together with the books of Holy
Writ, they taught them the arts of prosody, astronomy,
and ecclesiastical arithmetic.^ A testimony of which is
that there are still living at this day some of their scholars
who are as well versed in the Greek and Latin tongues as
in their own, wherein they were born.^ Nor were there
ever happier times since the English came to Britain, for
since they had kings who were brave men and good
Christians, they were a terror to all barbarous nations ;
the mmds of all men were bent upon the joys of the
heavenly kingdom of which they had just heard ; and all
who desired to be instructed in sacred learning had mas-
ters at hand to teach them. From that time also they
began in all the churches of the English to learn sacred
music, which till then had been known only in Kent.
21. THE LIFE AND DEATH OF CHAD
Bk. 4, chap. 3
Chad had his episcopal see in the place called Lich-
field, in which he also died and was buried, and where
the see of the succeeding bishops of that province still
continues. He had built himself a dwelling not far from
the church, wherein he was wont to pray and read with
seven or eight of the brethren, as often as he had any
1 The art of calculating church seasons. Bright says (p. 238) : * This
great school became the prototype of the yet more famous school of York
in the next century, . . . out of which arose the illustrious Alcuin.'
2 See the interesting note in Mayor and Lumby's edition.
SELECTIONS FROM BEDE'S HISTORY 47
spare time from the labor and ministry of the word.
When he had most gloriously governed the church in
that province two years and a half, Divine Providence
ordained that there should come a season like that of
which Ecclesiastes says, ' A time to cast away stones, and a
time to gather stones together ' ^ ; for there happened a mor-
tality sent from heaven, which, by means of the death of
the flesh, transferred the living stones of the church from
their earthly places to the heavenly building. And when,
after many from the church of that most reverend prelate
had been taken out of the flesh, his hour also drew near
wherein he was to pass out of tliis world to the Lord, it
happened one day that he was in the aforesaid dwelling
with only one brother, called Owin, his other companions
having, for some good reason, returned to the church.
Now Owin was a monk of great merit, having forsaken
the world with the pure intention of obtaining the heavenly
reward, w^orthy in all respects to have the secrets of the
Lord revealed to him, and worthy to have credit given by
his hearers to what he said. He had come^ with Queen
^thelthryth from the province of the East Angles, and
was chief of her thanes and steward of her household.
As the fervor of his faith increased, he resolved to re-
nounce the world, and did not go about it slothfully, but
so fully forsook the things of this world that, quitting
all that he had, clad only in a plain garment, and carry-
ing an ax and a hatchet in his hand, he came to the
monastery of that most reverend prelate, called Lasting-
ham ^ ; by this denoting that he did not go to the monas-
tery to live idle, as some do, but to labor. This he also
confirmed by his practice, for as he was less capable of
1 Eccl. 3. 5. 2 In 660.
3 Seven miles N.W. of Pickering, in Yorkshire ; it was from this monas-
tery that Chad had come to Lichfield.
48 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
studying the Scriptures, he the more earnestly applied
himself to the labor of his hands.^ In short, having been
received, in company with the bishop, into the house
aforesaid, and there entertained with the brethren for the
sake of his reverent devotion, he, while they were engaged
within in reading, would remain outside, and do such
things as were necessary.
One day when he was thus employed abroad, his com-
panions having gone to the church, as I began to state,
and the bishop being alone, reading or praying in the ora-
tory of that place, on a sudden, as he afterwards would
say, he heard the voice of persons singing most sweetly
and rejoicing, and appearing to descend from heaven to
earth. This voice he said he first heard coming from the
southeast,^ that is, from the point where the winter sun
rises, and that afterwards it drew near him till it came to
the roof of the oratory where the bishop was, and, enter-
ing therein, filled the same and all about it. He listened
attentively to what he heard, and after about half an
hour perceived the same song of joy ascend from the
roof of the said oratory, and return to heaven, with inex-
pressible sweetness, the same way it came. When he had
stood some brief space astonished, and was seriously
revolving in his mind what it might be, the bishop
opened the window of the oratory, and snapping his fin-
gers, as he was often wont to do if any one was outside,
bade him come in to him. He accordingly went in with
speed, and the bishop said to him : ' Make haste to the
church, and cause those seven brethren to come hither,
and do you come with them.' When they were come, he
first admonished them to maintain the virtue of love and
peace among themselves and toward all believers, and
1 See below, p. 245. 2 a. sacred quarter ; cf . p. 62, note.
SELECTIONS FROM BEDE'S HISTORY 49
indefatigably to practise the rules of regular discipline
which they had either been taught by him or seen him
observe, or had noticed in the words or actions of the
fathers who had gone before. Then he added that the
day of his death was at hand, ' for,' said he, ' that lovely
guest w^ho has been wont to visit our brethren has vouch-
safed also to come to me tliis day, and to call me out of
this world. Eeturn, therefore, to the church, and speak
to the brethren that they in their prayers recommend
my departure to the Lord, and that they be careful to
provide for their own, the hour whereof is uncertain, by
watching, prayer, and good works.'
Wlien he had spoken thus much and more, and they,
having received his blessing, had gone away in sorrow,
he who had heard the heavenly song returned alone, and
prostrating himself on the groimd, said : ' I beseech you,
father, may I ask a question ? ' * Ask what you wiU,' an-
swered the bishop. Owin rejoined : ' I entreat you to tell
me what song that was which I heard issuing from those
rejoicing ones who descended from the sky upon this
oratory, and who after some time returned to heaven ? '
The bishop answered : ' If you heard the singing, and
knew of the approach of the heavenly company, I charge
you in the name of the Lord not to tell the same to any
one before my death. They were angelic spirits, who came
to call me to the heavenly reward which I have always
loved and longed for, and they promised to return seven
days from now and take me away with them.' Tliis was
fulfilled as had been said to him; for — being presently
seized with a languishing distemper, and the same daily
increasing — on the seventh day, as had been promised to
him, when he had prepared for death by receiving the body
and blood of our Lord, his holy soul being delivered from
50 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
the prison ^ of the body, and the angels, as may justly be
believed, attending him, he departed to the everlasting joys.
22. JOHN, THE SINGER OF THE APOSTOLIC
SEE (A.D. 680)
Bk. 4, chap. 18
He [Benedict Biscop] then received the aforesaid Abbot
John to be conducted mto Britam, that he might teach
m his monastery the annual round of musical services
as it was practised at St. Peter's at Eome. Abbot John
did as he had been commanded by the pope, teaching
orally to the singers of the said monastery the order and
manner of singing and reading, and also committing to
writing all that was requisite throughout the whole course
of the year for the celebration of festivals ; all which are
still observed in that monastery, and have been copied by
many others in various places. Not only did the said John
teach the brothers of that monastery, but such as had
skill in singing resorted from almost all the monasteries
of that province to hear him, and many invited him to
teach in other places.
23. THE LIFE AND DEATH OF THE ABBESS HILD
Bk. 4, chap. 23
In the following year, namely that of our Lord's incar-
nation 680, on the 17th of November, the most religious
servant of Christ, Hild, abbess of the monastery that is
called Whitby, as above mentioned, after having per-
formed many heavenly works on earth, passed from thence
to receive the rewards of the heavenly life, at the age of
1 Various occurrences of this figure in English and other literatures are
noted iu Cook's edition of The Dream of the Rood, pp. 38-9.
SELECTIONS FROM BEDE'S HISTORY 51
sixty-six years, which fell into two equal divisions : the
first thirty-three she spent in living most nobly in the
secular habit, and more nobly dedicated the remaining
half to our Lord in the monastic life. She was noble too
by birth, being the daughter of Hereric, nephew to King
Edwin, with which king,^ moreover, at the preaching of
Paulinus of blessed memory, the first bishop of the North-
umbrians, she embraced the faith and mysteries of Christ,
and preserved the same undefiled until she attained to
the vision of Him in heaven.
Eesolving to quit the secular habit, and to serve Him
alone, she withdrew into tlie province of the East Angles,
smce she was a connection of the king ; ^ being desirous,
if it were at all possible, to pass over from thence into
France, forsaking her native country and all she had, and
so live for our Lord in the monastery of Chelles^ as an
exile, that she might the more easily attain to the eternal
kingdom in heaven ; because her sister Hereswith, mother
to Aldwulf, king of the East Angles, at that time living
in the same monastery under regular discipline, was wait-
ing for her eternal crown. Being led by her example, she
planned to go abroad, but was detained a whole year in
the aforesaid province ; afterwards, being recalled home by
Bishop Aidan, she accepted a hide of land on the north
side of the river Wear, where again for a year she with a
very few companions led a monastic life.
After tliis she was made abbess in the monastery called
Hartlepool,^ wliich had been founded not long before by
1 Cf . p. 34. 2 Her sister had married the king's brother.
3 A little to the east of Paris. ISIayor and Luinby say : ' The studies
pursued in these nunneries may be inferred from the example of St. Rade-
gunde, queen of France, foundress of Holy Cross convent at Poitiers,
who there read Gregory Nazianzen, Basil, Athanasius, Hilary, Ambrose,
Jerome, Augustine, Sedulius, and Orosius.'
* Eighteen miles S.E. of Durham, on the sea.
62 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
the religious handmaid of Christ, Heiu, who is said to have
been the first woman in the province of the Northum-
brians who took upon herself the vow and vesture of a
nun, being consecrated by Bishop Aidan ; but she, soon
after she had founded that monastery, w^ent away to the
city of Tadcaster,! and there fixed her dwelhng. Hild, the
handmaid of Christ, being set over that monastery, began
immediately to reduce all things to a regular system, as
far as she could ascertain from learned men ; for Bishop
Aidan, and as many religious men as knew her, frequently
visited, fervently loved, and diligently instructed her,
because of her innate wisdom and attachment to the
service of God.
When, therefore, she had for some eight years governed
that monastery, wholly intent upon establishing the regu-
lar life, it happened that she also undertook either to
build or to set in order a monastery in the place called
Wliitby.2 This work laid upon her she industriously per-
formed, for she put this monastery under the same regu-
lar discipline as the former, and taught there the strict
observance of justice, piety, chastity, and other virtues,
particularly of peace and charity, so that, after the example
of the primitive church,^ no person was there rich and
none poor, all being in common to all, and none having
any property. Her prudence was so great that not only
indifferent persons, but even kings and princes, as occa-
sion offered, asked and received her advice. She obliged
those who were under her direction to attend so much
to the reading of the Holy Scriptures, and to exercise
themselves so much in works of righteousness, that many
1 Nine miles S.W. of York. ' The village of Healaugh, about three miles
north of Tadcaster, is believed to mark the site of St. Heiii's foundation, and
possibly preserves her name ' (Murray's Yorkshire, quoted by Plummer).
2 A.D, 657. 3 Cf. Acts 4. 32-4 ; 2. 44-5.
SELECTIONS FROM BEDE'S HISTORY 53
might be there found fit for ecclesiastical duties, that is,
to serVe at the altar. . . .
Thus this handmaid of Christ, Abbess Hild, whom
all that knew her called Mother for her singular piety
and grace, was not only an example of good life to those
that lived in her monastery, but afforded occasion of
amendment and salvation to many who lived at a dis-
tance, to whom the fame was brought of her industry
and virtue. . . .
When she had governed this monastery many years, it
pleased Him who has made such merciful provision for
our salvation, to give her holy soul the trial of a long
sickness, to the end that, according to the apostle's ex-
ample, her strength might be made perfect in weakness.^
Smitten by fevers, she began to be tormented with vio-
lent heat, and was afflicted with the same for six years
continually, during all which time she never failed either
to return thanks to her ]\Iaker, or publicly and privately
to instruct the flock committed to her charge, for by her
own example she admonished all persons to serve God
dutifully while in perfect health, and always to return
thanks to Him wdien in adversity or bodily infirmity. In
the seventh year of her sickness, tlie distemper turning
inwards, she approached her last day, and about cock-
crowing, having received the holy communion to further
her on her way, and called together the handmaids of
Christ who were within the same monastery, she admon-
ished them to preserve the peace of the gospel among
themselves and toward aU others ; and as she was utter-
ing her admonitions, she joyfully beheld death, or, if
I may use the words of our Lord, passed from death
unto life.2
1 2 Cor. 12. 9. ^ John 5. 24.
54 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
24. THE POET C.EDMOX (a.d. 680)
Bk. 4, chap. 24 ^
There was iu the monastery of this abbess a certam
brother especially distinguished by the grace of God,
since he was wont to make poems breathing of piety and
religion. Whatever he learned of sacred Scripture by the
mouth of interpreters, he in a little time gave forth in
poetical language composed with the greatest sweetness
and depth of feeling, in English, his native tongue ; and
the effect of liis poems was ever and anon to incite the
souls of many to despise the world and long for the
heavenly life. Not but that there were others after liim
among the people of the Angles who sought to compose
religious poetry ; but none there was who could equal him,
for he did not learn the art of song from men, nor through
the means of any man ; rather did he receive it as a free
gift from God. Hence it came to pass that he never was
able to compose poetry of a frivolous or idle sort ; none
but such as pertain to religion suited a tongue so religious
as his. Living always the life of a layman until well ad-
vanced in years, he had never learned the least thing
about poetry. In fact, so httle did he understand of it that
when at a feast it would be ruled that every one present
sliould, for the entertainment of the others, sing in turn, he
would, as soon as he saw the harp commg anywhere near
liim, jump up from the table in the midst of the banquet-
ing, leave the place, and make the best of his way home.
Tliis he had done at a certain time, and leaving the
house where the feast was in progress, had gone out to
1 Not merely a revision, but newly translated by Albert S. Cook for
the companion volume to this, the Select Translations from Old English
Poetry.
SELECTIONS FROM BEDE'S HISTORY 65
the stable where tlie care of the cattle had been assigned
to him for that night. There, when it was time to go to
sleep, he had lain down for that purpose. But while he
slept some one stood by him in a dream, greeted him,
called him by name, and said, ' Csedmon, sing me some-
thing.' To this he repKed, ' I know not how to sing, and
that is the very reason why I left the feast and came
here, because I could not sing.' But the one who was
talking with him answered, ' Xo matter, you are to sing
for me.' ' Well, then/ said he, ' what is it that I must
sing ? ' ' »Sing,' said the other, ' the beginning of created
things.' At this reply he immediately began to sing verses
in praise of God the Creator, verses that he had never
heard, and whose meaning is as follows : ' Xow should
we praise the Keeper of the heavenly kingdom, the might
of the Creator and His counsel, the works of the Father of
glory ; how He, though God eternal, became the Author of
all marvels. He, the almighty Guardian of mankind, first
created for the sons of men heaven as a roof, and after-
wards the earth.' This is the meaning, but not the precise
order, of the words w^hich he sang in his sleep ; for no
songs, however well they may be composed, can be ren-
dered from one language into another without loss of
grace and dignity. When he rose from sleep, he remem-
bered all that he had sung while in that state, and shortly
after added, in the same strain, many more words of a
hymn befitting the majesty of God.
In the morning he went to the steward who was set
over him, and showed him what gift he had acquired.
Being led to the abbess, he was bidden to make known
his dream and repeat his poem to the many learned men
who were present, that they all might give their judg-
ment concerning the thing which he related, and whence
56 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
it was ; and they were unanimously of the opinion that
heavenly grace had been bestowed upon him by the Lord.
They then set about expounding to him a piece of sacred
history or teaching, bidding him, if he could, to turn it
into the rhythm of poetry. This he undertook to do, and
departed. In the morning he returned and delivered the
passage assigned to him, converted into an excellent poem.
The abbess, honoring the grace of God as displayed in
the man, shortly afterward instructed him to forsake the
condition of a layman and take upon himself the vows of
a monk. She thereupon received liim into the monastery
with his whole family, and made liim one of the company
of the brethren, commanding that he should be taught
the whole course and succession of Biblical history. He,
in turn, calling to mind what he was able to learn by the
hearing of the ear, and, as it were, like a clean animal,
cliewing upon it as a cud,^ transformed it all uito most
agreeable poetry ; and, by echoing it back in a more har-
monious form, made his teachers in turn listen to liim.
Thus he rehearsed the creation of the world, the origin of
man, and all the story of Genesis ; the departure of Israel
from Egypt and their entry into the promised land, to-
gether with many other liistories from Holy Writ; the
incarnation of our Lord, His passion, resurrection, and
ascension mto heaven ; the coming of the Holy Ghost
and the teaching of the apostles ; moreover he made
many poems about the terror of the future judgment, the
awfulness of the pains of hell, and the joy of the heavenly
kingdom, besides a great number about the mercies and
judgments of God. In all these he exerted himself to
allure men from the love of wickedness, and to impel
them to the love and practice of righteous living ; for he
1 Lev. 11. 3-6; Deut. 14. G-8; Shakespeare, A.'y.L. 4. 3. 102.
SELECTIONS FROM BEDE'S HISTORY 57
was a very devout man, humbly submissive to the monas-
tic rule, but full of consuming zeal against those who were
disposed to act otherwise.
Hence it came to pass that he ended his life ^th a fair
death- !^or when the hour of his departure drew nigh, he
was afflicted for the space of a fortnight with a bodily
weakness which seemed to prepare the way ; yet it was
so far from severe that he was able during the whole of
that time Uj walk about and converse. Near at hand there
was a cottage, to which those who were sick and appeared
nigh unto death were usually taken. At the apjjroach of
evening on the same night when he was to leave the
world, he desired his 'ittendant to make ready a place
there for him to take his rest. The attendant did so,
though he cor Id not help wondering at the request, since
he did not seem in the least like a person about to die.
When he was placed in the infirmary, he was somehow
full of good humor, and kept talking and joking with
those who had already been brought there. Some time
after midnight he asked whether they had the eucharist
at hand. * What do you need of the eucharist ? ' they an-
swered, * you aren't going to die yet, for you are just as
fuU of fun in talking with us as if nothing were the
matter with you.' * Never mind,' said he, ' bring me the
eucharist.' Taking it in his hand, he asked, * Are you all
at peace with me, and free from any grudge or ill-will ? '
* Yes,' they all responded, ' we are perfectly at peace with
you, and cherish no grievance whatever.' ' But are you,'
said they, ' entirely at peace with us ? ' * Yes, my dear
children,' he answered without hesitation, ' I am at peace
with all the serv^ants of God.' And thus saying, he made
ready for his entrance into the other life by partaking of
the heavenly journey-bread. Not long after he inquired.
58 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
' How near is it to the hour when the brethren are wak-
eneci for lauds ? ' ' But a Uttle wliile,' was the reply. ' Well
then,' said he, ' let us wait for that hour,' and, making
over himself the sign of the cross, he laid his head on the
pillow, and falling into a light slumber, ended his life in
silence. And so it came to pass that, as he had served the
Lord in simplicity and purity of mind, and with serene
attachment and loyalty, so by a serene death he left the
world, and went to look upon His face. And meet in
truth it was that tht tongue which had indited so many
helpful words in praise of the Creator, should frame its
very last words in His praise, hile in the act of signing
himself with the cross, and of cciu mending his spirit into
His hands. And that he foresaw liis death is apparent
from what has here been related.
25. DRYHTHELM'S VISION OF THE HEREAFTER i
Bk. 5, chap. 12
At this time a memorable miracle, and like to those of
old, was wrought m Britain ; for to the end that the living
might be saved from the death of the soul, a certain man
who had been some time dead rose again to the life of
the body, and related many memorable things which he
had seen ; some of wliich I have thought fit here briefly
to relate. There was a householder in that district of
1 Cf. the vision of Fursa (3. 19). The visions of the other world, which
perhaps begin with tlie Book of Enoch (pre-Christian), and are contin-
ued in tlie apocryphal Acts of Thomas (2d century). Apocalypse of Peter
(2d century) , and Apocalypse of Paul (4th century) , here first appear on
English soil. On the general subject, reference may be made to The Dream
of the Rood, ed. Cook, p. Iv, note 2; The Pearl, ed. Osgood, p. xxxvii,
note 1 ; Bede's Eccl. Hist., ed. Plummer, 2. 294-5. See also Plato, Gorgias
523 ff. ; Phsiclo 113-4; Stewart, Tlie Myths of Plato ; Virgil, Mn. 6. 548 fif. ;
Dieterich, Nekyia.
SELECTIONS FROM BEDE'S HISTORY 59
Northumbria which is called Cunniagham,^ who led a
religious Life, as did all liis house. This man fell sick,
and liis distemper daily increasing, he was brought to
death's door, and died in the beginning of the night ; but
in the mornmg early he suddenly came to life again, and sat
up, upon which all those that sat about the body weepmg
fled away in a great fright ; only his wife, who loved him
best, though in a great consternation and trembling,
remained with him. He, comforting her, said, ' Fear not,
for I am now truly risen from death, and permitted again
to live among men ; however, I am not to live hereafter
as I was wont, but from henceforward after a very differ-
ent manner.' Then rising immediately, he repaired to the
chapel of the village, and continuing in prayer till day,
immediately divided all his substance into three parts,
one whereof he gave to his wife, another to his children,
and reserving the third for liimself, instantly distributed
it among the poor. Not long after, having thus rid him-
self of worldly cares, he repaired to the monastery of
Melrose, which is almost enclosed by a bend of the river
Tweed ; and having received the tonsure, went into a
private dwelling which the abbot had provided, where he
continued till the day of his death m such extraordinary
contrition of mind and body that, though his tongue had
been silent, his life declared that he had seen many
things either to be dreaded or desired, which others knew
nothing of.
And thus he related what he had seen : ' He that led
me had a sliining countenance and a bright garment, and
we went on silently, as I thought, towards the northeast.
Walking on, we came to a vale of great breadth and
1 ' Generally identified with Cunningham, just within the Scotch border '
(Plummer) .
60 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
depth, and of infinite length. The part which lay at our
left had one side full of dreadful flames, while the other
was no less horrid for violent hail and cold, scudding and
sweeping in all directions* Both places were full of men's
souls, which seemed by turns to be tossed from one side
to the other, as it were by the violence of tempest; for
when the wretches could no longer endure the excess of
heat, they leaped into the middle of the cutting cold;
and, finding no rest there, would leap back again into the
midst of the inextinguishable flames.^ Now whereas an
innumerable multitude of deformed spirits were thus al-
ternately tormented, as far as one could look, without any
intermission, I began to think that this might perhaps be
hell, of whose intolerable flames I had often heard. My
guide, who went before me, answered my thought, saj'ing,
" Do not believe so, for this is not the hell you imagine."
* When he had by degrees conducted me, much fright-
ened with that horrid spectacle, to the further end, on a
sudden I saw the place begin to grow dusky before us,
and fill with darkness. When we had entered it, the
darkness by degrees grew so thick that I could see noth-
ing except the shape and clothing of liim that led me.
As we advanced through the shades of night, suddenly
there appeared before us frequent globes of black flames,
rising as it were out of a great pit, and fallmg back again
into the same. Wlien I had been conducted thither, my
leader suddenly vanished, and left me alone in the midst
of darkness and tliis horrid vision. Now while those
same globes of fire without intermission at one time flew
up and at another fell back into the bottom of the abyss,
I observed that all the tips of the flames, as they ascended,
were full of human souls, which, like sparks flying up
1 Cf. Shakespeare, M.for M. 3. 1. 122-3; Milton, P. L. 2. 600 ff.
SELECTIONS FROM BEDE'S HISTORY 61
with smoke, were sometimes thrown on high, and again,
when the fiery vapors ceased, dropped down into the
depths below. Moreover, an insufferable stench came
forth with the vapors, and filled all those dark places.
' Ha\ing stood there a long time in much dread, not
knowing what to do, which way to turn, or what end I
might expect, on a sudden I heard behind me the noise
of most hideous and wretclied lamentation, and at the
same time a loud laughing, as of a rude multitude insult-
ing captured enemies. When that noise, growing plainer,
came up to me, I observed a gang of evil spirits dragging
the howlmg and lamentmg souls of five men into the
midst of the darkness, while they themselves laughed
and rejoiced above measure. Among those men, as I
could discern, there was one tonsured like a clerk, one
layman, and one woman. The evil spirits that dragged
them went down into the midst of the burning pit ; and
as they went down deeper, I could no longer distinguish
between the lamentation of the men and the laughing of
the devils, yet I still had in my ears the mingled sound.
In the meantime, some of the dark spirits ascended from
that flaming abyss, and runnmg forward encompassed me
on all sides, and much afflicted me with their flaming
eyes and the stinking fire which proceeded from their
mouths and nostrils. They threatened also to lay hold on
me with burning tongs which they had in their hands,
yet they durst not touch me, though they were bold to
frighten me. Being thus on all sides enclosed with ene-
mies and darkness, and looking about on every side for
assistance to escape, there appeared behind me, on the
way that I came, as it were the brightness of a star ^ shin-
ing amidst the darkness, which increased by degrees, and
1 Plummer compares Dante, Purg. 12. 89-90.
62 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
came rapidly towards me. And when it drew nigh, all
those evil spirits that sought to carry me away with their
tongs dispersed and fled.
' He whose approach put them to flight was the same
that led me before, who then, turning towards the right,
began to lead me, as it were, towards the southeast,^ and
having soon brought me out of the darkness, conducted
me into an atmosphere of serene light. Wliile he thus
led me in open light, I saw a vast wall before us, the
length and height of which, in every direction, seemed to
be altogether boundless. I began to wonder why we
went up to the wall, seeing that I could discover no door,
or window, or means of ascent. When we came to the
wall, we were presently, I know not by what means, on
the top of it, and within it was a vast and delightful field,
so full of fragrant flowers that the sweetness of its
delightful odor immediately dispelled the stench of the
dark furnace, which had penetrated me in every part.
So great was the light in this place that it seemed to
exceed the brightness of the day, or the sun in its
meridian height. In this field were innumerable assem-
blies of men in white, and many companies seated together
rejoicing. As he led me through the choirs of those
blissful inhabitants, I began to think that this might per-
haps be the kingdom of heaven, of which I had often
heard so many sermons. He answered my thought, saying,
" No, this is not the kingdom of heaven, as you imagine."
' When we had passed those abodes of blessed souls and
gone further on, I discovered in front of us a much more
beautiful light, and therein heard sweet voices of persons
singing ; and so wonderful a fragrance proceeded from the
1 On the southeast as the quarter of felicity, see Cook's edition of
Cyuewulf's Christ, note on 1. 900, and Lactautius, Inst. Div. 2. 9.
SELECTIONS FROM BEDE'S HISTORY 63
place that the other, which I had before thought most
delicious, then seemed to me but very indifferent ; even
as that extraordinary brightness of the flowery field, com-
pared with this, appeared mean and inconsiderable. When
I began to hope we should enter that delightful place, my
guide on a sudden stood still; and then retracing his
steps, led me back by the way we came.
'When we returned to those joyful mansions of the
spirits in white, he said to me : " Do you know^ what all
these things are which you have seen ? " I answered, I
did not ; and then he replied : " That vale you saw, so
dreadful for consuming flames and cutting cold, is the
place in which the souls of those are tried and punished
who, delaying to confess and amend their crimes, at length
have recourse to repentance at the point of death, and so
depart tliis life ; but nevertheless because they even at
their death confessed and repented, they shall all be re-
ceived into the kingdom of heaven at the day of judg-
ment ; but many are relieved, even before the day of
judgment, by the prayers,^ alms, and fasting of the liv-
ing, and more especially by the celebration of masses.
That fiery and foul-smelling pit which you saw is the
mouth of hell, into which whosoever falls shall never be
delivered to all eternity. Tliis flowery place, in which you
see these most beautiful young people, so resplendent and
joyful, is that into which the souls of those are received
who depart the body in good works, but who are not so
perfect as to deserve to be immediately admitted into the
kingdom of heaven ; yet they shall all, at the day of judg-
ment, have the vision of Christ, and enter into the joys of
His kingdom. But they who are perfect in thought, word,
and deed, as soon as they depart the body immediately
1 Pluminer compares Dante, Purg. 3. 140-1.
64 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
enter into the kingdom of heaven, in the neighborhood
whereof that place is where you heard the sound of sweet
singing, with the odor of sweetness and splendor of light.
As for you, who are now to return to the body, and live
again among men, if you will endeavor strictly to exam-
ine your actions, and direct your speech and behavior m
righteousness and simplicity, you shall after death have
a place of residence among these joyful troops of blessed
souls which you behold ; for when I left you for a while,
it was to know how you were to be disposed of." When
he had said this to me, I much abhorred returnmg to my
body, being delighted with the sweetness and beauty of
the place I beheld, and with the company of those I saw
in it. However, I durst not ask my guide any questions ;
but in the meantime, on a sudden, I know not how, I find
myself ahve among men.'
Now these and other tilings which this man of God
saw, he would not relate to slothful persons and such as
lived carelessly, but only to those who, being terrified
mth the dread of torments, or delighted with the hope of
everlasting joys, wished to make use of his words to ad-
vance in piety. Lq the neighborhood of his cell lived one
Hiemgils, a monk, eminent too in the priesthood, as his
good works alone might testify. This man is still hving,
and leading a solitary life in Ireland, supporting his ex-
treme old age on bread and cold water. He often went
to that man, and by asking numerous questions, heard
from him all the particulars of what he had seen when
separated from his body ; by whose recital I also came to
the knowledge of the few facts which I have briefly set
down. He also related his visions to King Aldfrith,^ a man
1 Whom Bright calls {Earhj Eng. Church Hist., p. 338) ' the first of
our literary kings,' and Plumnier (2. 263) ' the philosopher-king.'
SELECTIONS FROM BEDE'S HISTORY 65
most learned in all respects, and was by him so willingly
and attentively heard that at his request he was admitted
LDto the monastery above mentioned, and received the
monastic tonsure ; and the said king, when he happened
to be in those parts, very often went to hear him. At
that time the religious and modest abbot and priest,
^thelwald,^ presided over the monastery, and now with
worthy conduct occupies the episcopal see of the church
of Lindisfarne.
He had a private place of residence assigned him in
that monastery, where he might freely apply himself to
the service of his Creator in contiaual prayer. And as that
place lay on the bank of the river, he was wont to go
frequently into the same for the chastening of his body,
and many times to dip quite under the water, and to
continue saying Psalms or prayers therein as long as he
could endure it, standing still sometimes up to the middle,
and sometimes to the neck in water ; and when he went
out from thence ashore, he never took off his cold and
frozen garments till they grew warm and dry on his body.
And when in winter the half-broken pieces of ice were
swimming about him, wliich he had sometimes broken
in order to make room to stand or dip himself in the
river, those who beheld it would say, 'It is wonderful,
brother Dryhthelm (for so he was called), that you are
able to endure such violent cold ' ; but he would simply
answer, for he was a man of simple wit and moderate
nature, ' I have seen greater cold.' And when they would
1 He became Bishop of Lindisfarne ca. 721, and died in 740, or earlier.
As bishop, he provided a cover for the famous Lindisfarne Gospels, or
Durham Book (Brit. Mus. Cott. Nero D, IV) ; on this see Cook, Biblical
Quotations in Old English Prose Writers 1 (1898) xliv ff. Plummer
says of it (2. 298) : ' No facsimile can give any idea of the exquisite
beauty of the original. It is the fairest MS. that has ever come under
my notice.*
66 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
say, * It is strange that you will endure such austerity ' ;
he would reply, ' I have seen greater austerity.' Thus he
continued, through an indefatigable desire of heavenly
bliss, to subdue his aged body, with the addition of daily
fasting, till the day of his being called away ; promoting
the salvation of many by his words and manner of life.
J. A. Giles, revised
SELECTIONS FROM THE OLD ENGLISH
CHRONICLE
Four versions of the famous series of chronological records
known as the Old English Chronicle have been preserved in seven
manuscripts. These were kept in various places, such as Canter-
bury, Winchester, and Peterborough, but the earlier portions of
them (to the year 892) are all closely related to one original
draft. This, in turn, was probably based on earlier local chroni-
cles, combined and supplemented by order of Kiug Alfred. The
entries begin with an account of the invasion of Britain by
Julius C?esar, ' sixty years before the incarnation of Christ,' but
this, like the notes immediately following (a.d. 1-448), is a
comparatively late interpolation. Nothing of any length or par-
ticular value antedates 449, and it is doubtful whether any con-
temporary entries were made in the original chronicles before
600. The early records depend largely on Bede's History. The
last entry is under date of 1154.
A peculiarity of the records of the tenth century is the occa-
sional insertion of poems, chief among which are The Battle of
Brunanhurh and The Battle of Maldon (Select Translations from Old
English Poetry, Boston, 1902, pp. 26, 31). Only occasionally,
however, does the Chronicle rise above the plane of bald prose.
Plummer says in his masterly edition. Two of the Saxon Chroni-
cles Parallel (Oxford, 1892-9) : ' In their laconic annals much
was implied, and little exjn-essed. ... To posterity they present
merely a name or two, as of a battle-field and a victor, but to
the men of the day they suggested a thousand particulars, which
they, in their comrade-life, were in the habit of recollecting and
SELECTIONS FROM OLD ENGLISH CHRONICLE 67
putting together. . . .' And again : 'A numerical list of years was
prepared, with a blank space, generally only a single line, opposite
each number. The smallness of the space shows that nothing
great was designed, but only a year-mark to know and distinguish
the year by ' (2. xxi-xxii).
The Chronicle shares with Bede's Ecclesiastical History the dis-
tinction of being the chief source for the history of England
before the twelfth century. Even so early a writer as Asser
translates from the Chronicle (cf. pp. 89 ff.). A modern trans-
lation may be found in Thorpe's edition (Rolls Series, London,
1861), or one by Giles, in the Bohn series, from which, with
occasional changes, our extracts are taken.
A.D. 1. Octavianus reigned fifty-six years, and in the
forty-second year of his reign Christ was born.
A.D. 33. Tliis year Christ was crucified, being from the
beginning of the world about five thousand two hundred
and twenty-six years.
A.D. 199. In this year the Holy Eood was found.
A.D. 449. This year Martianus and Valentinus^ suc-
ceeded to the empire, and reigned seven years. And in
their days Hengist and Horsa, invited by Vortigern, King
of the Britons, landed in Britain on the shore which is
called Ebbsfleet^; at first in aid of the Britons, but after-
wards they fought against them. King Vortigern ga\'e
them land in the southeast of this country, on condition
that they should light against tlie Picts. Then they fought
against the Picts, and had the victory wheresoever they
came. They then sent to the Angles, desired a larger force
to be sent, and caused them to be told the worthlessness
of the Britons and the excellences of the land.^
1 For Valentinianus.
2 Very possibly the landing-place of Augustine also; see Stanley, Hist.
Mem. Canterbury, pp. 14-30.
3 Cf. Bede's account, p. 14, on which the whole passage is obviously
based. The entry continues with an account of the various tribes, and of
the ancestry of Hengist and Horsa, much as in Bede.
68 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
A.D. 793. This year dire fore warnings came over the
land of the Northumbrians, and miserably terrified the
people ; these were excessive whirlwinds, and lightnings ;
and fiery dragons were seen flying in the air. A great
famine soon followed these tokens ; and a little after that,
in the same year, on the 6th before the Ides of January,
the ravaging of heathen men lamentably destroyed God's
church at Lindisfarne through rapine and slaughter. . . .
A.D. 832. This year the heathen men ravaged Sheppey.
A.D. 833. This year King Egbert fought against the
men of thirty-five ships at Charmouth, and there was
great slaughter made, and the Danish men maintained
possession of the field.
A.D. 851. This year Ceorl the earl, with the men of
Devonshire, fought against the heathen men at Wicgan-
beorg^ (and there was great slaughter), and got the victory.
And the same year King Athelstan and ^Icliere the earl
fought on shipboard, and slew a great number of the enemy
at Sandwich in Kent, and took nine ships, and put the
others to flight. And the heathen men, for the first time,
remained over winter in Thanet. And the same year came
three hundred and fifty ships to the mouth of the Thames,
and the crews landed, and took London and Canterbury by
storm, and put to flight Berhtwulf, King of the Mercians,
with his army, and then went south over the Thames into
Surrey. And there King JEthelwulf, and his son ^thel-
bald, with the army of the West Saxons, fought against
them at Aclea, and made the greatest slaughter among
the heathen army that we have heard reported to the
present day, and got the victory.
1 Possibly Wigborough, in the parisli of South Petherton in Somerset-
shire (Stevenson), though the identification must be regarded as by no
means certain.
SELECTIONS FROM OLD ENGLISH CHRONICLE 69
A.D. 865. This year the heathen army sat down in
Thanet, and made peace with the men of Kent, and the
men of Kent promised them money for the peace. And
pending the peace and the promise of money, the army
stole away by night, and ravaged all Kent to the eastw^ard.
A.D. 871. About three days after tliis, King ^thelred
and AKred his brother led a large force to Heading, and
fought against the army, and there was great slaughter
made on either hand. And here ^thelwTilf the earl was
slain, and the Danish men had possession of the place of
carnage. And about four days after this. King ^thelred
and Alfred his brother fought against the whole army at
Ashdown. And they [the Danes] were in two bodies —
in one were Bagsecg and Halfdene, the heathen kings, and
in the other were the earls. And then King ^thelred
fought against the division under the kings, and there
King Bagsecg w^as slain ; and Alfred his brother against
the division under the earls, and Earl Sidrac the elder
w^as slain. Earl Sidrac the younger, and Earl Osbern, and
Earl Frene, and Earl Harold. And both divisions of the
army w^ere put to flight, and many thousands slain, and
they continued fighting until night. . . . Then Alfred, the
son of ^thelwulf, . . . succeeded to the kingdom of the
West Saxons. And about one month after this. King
Alfred, with a small band, fought against the whole army
at Wilton, and put them to flight for a good part of the
day ; but the Danes had possession of the battle-field.
A.D. 875. That summer King Alfred went out to sea
with a fleet, and fought against the forces of seven ships,
and one of them he took, and put the rest to flight.
A.D. 878. This year, during midwinter, after Twelfth
Mght, the army [of the Danes] stole away to Chippenham,
and overran the land of the West Saxons, and sat down
70 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
there. And many of the people they drove beyond sea,
and of the remainder the greater part they subdued and
forced to obey them, except Kmg Alfred ; and he, with a
small band, \\ith difficulty retreated to the woods and to
the fastnesses of the moors. And the same winter the
brother of Hingwar and of Halfdene came with twenty-
three ships to Devonshire in Wessex, and he was there
slain, and with him eight hundred and forty men of his
army, and there was taken the war-flag which they called
the Eaven. After this, at Easter, King Alfred with a
small band constructed a fortress at Athelney, and from
this fortress, with that part of the men of Somerset which
was nearest to it, from time to time fought against the
army. Then in the seventh week after Easter he rode
to Brixton, on the east side of Selwood, and there came to
meet him all the men of Somerset, and the men of Wilt-
shire, and that portion of the men of Hampshire which
was on this side of the sea ; and they were joyful of his
presence. On the following day he went from that station
to Iley, and on the day after this to Edington,^ and there
fought against the whole army, put them to flight, and
pursued them as far as their fortress ; and there he sat
down fourteen days. And then the army dehvered to liim
hostages, wdth many oaths that they would leave his
kingdom, and also promised him that their king should
receive baptism ; and this they accordingly fulfilled. And
about three weeks after this. King Guthrun came to him,
with some thirty who were of the most distinguished in
the army, at Aller, w^hicli is near Athelney. And the king
was his godfather at baptism, and his chrism-loosing ^ was
1 In Wiltshire (Stevenson).
2 See the note in Cook's translation of Asser's Life of King Alfred,
pp. 29, 30.
SELECTIONS FROM OLD ENGLISH CHRONICLE 71
at Wedmore ; and he was twelve days with the king, and
he [King Alfred] greatly honored him and his compan-
ions with gifts.
A.D. 886. This year King Alfred occupied London. And
all the English submitted to him, except those who were
under the bondage of the Danish men. And then he com-
mitted the town to the keeping of ^thelred the earl.
A.D. 897. ... That same year the armies from among
the East Anglians and from among the Northumbrians
harassed the land of the West Saxons, chiefly on the south
coast, with predatory bands — most of all by their ' ashes,'
which they had built many years before. Then King
Alfred commanded long sliips to be built to oppose the
' ashes.' They were full twice as long as the others ; some
had sixty oars, and some had more ; they were both swifter
and steadier, and also higher than the others. They were
shaped neither like the Frisian nor the Danish, but so as
it seemed to him they would be most efficient.
A.D. 901. This year died Alfred, the son of ^thelwulf,
six days before All Saints' Day. He was king over the
whole English nation, except that part which was under
the dominion of the Danes, and he held the kingdom one
year and a half less than thirty years. And then Edward,
his son, succeeded to the kingdom.
A.D. 1066. In this year King Harold came from York
to Westminster, at that Easter w^liich was after the mid-
winter in which the king died ; and Easter was then on
the 16th day before the Kalends of May. Then was over
all England such a token seen in the heavens as no man
ever before saw. Some men said that it was the star co-
me^a, which certain men call the hairy star ; and it appeared
first on the eve of the Greater Litany,^ the 8tli day before
1 St. Mark's Day, April 25.
72 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
the Kalends of May, and so shone all the seven nights.
And soon after came Tostig the earl from beyond sea into
the Isle of Wight with as great a fleet as he might procure ;
and there they yielded him as well money as food. And
King Harold, his brother, gathered so great a ship-force,
and also land-force, as no king here in the land had before
done; because it was made known to him that William
the bastard would come hither and win this land ; just as
it afterwards happened. And meanwhile Earl Tostig came
into the Humber with sixty ships ; and Earl Edwdn came
with a land-force and drove him out. And the sailors
forsook him ; and he went to Scotland w4th twelve vessels.
And there met him Harold, King of Norway, with three
hundred ships ; and Tostig submitted to him and became
his man. And they then went both into the Humber
until they came to York ; and there fought against them
Earl Edwin and Earl Morkere, his brother ; but the North-
men had the victory. Then was it made known to Harold,
King of the English, that this had thus happened, and
this battle ^ was on the vigil of St. Matthew.^ Then came
Harold our king unawares on the Northmen, and met with
them beyond York, at Stamford Bridge, with a great army
of English people ; and there during the day ^ was a very
severe fight on both sides. There was slain Harold the
Eair-haired* and Tostig the earl; and the Northmen who
were there remaining were put to flight ; and the English
from behind fiercely smote them, until some of them came
to their ships, some were drowned, and some burned ; and
thus in divers ways they perished, so that there were few
left; and the English had possession of the battle-field.
1 That of Gate Fulford. 2 gt. Matthew's day is September 21.
3 September 25.
4 Wrong ; it was Harold Hardrada. Harold the Fair-haired had died
about 933.
SELECTIONS FROM OLD ENCLISH CHROiN.wLE 73
The king then gave his protection to Olaf, son of the king
of the Norwegians, and to their bishop, and to the Earl
of Orkney, and to all those who were left in the ships.
And they then went up to our king, and swore oaths that
they would observe peace and friendship towards this land ;
and the king let them go home with twenty-four ships.
These two general battles were fought within live days.
Then came William, Earl of Normandy, into Pevensey, on
the eve of Michaelmas ^ ; and soon after they were on their
way, they constructed a castle ^ at Hastings-port. This was
then made known to King Harold, and he then gathered
a great force, and came to meet him at the hoar apple-tree ^ ;
and William came against him unawares, before his people
were set in order. But the king nevertheless strenuously
fought against him with those men who would follow him ;
and there was great slaughter made on either hand. There
was slain King Harold, and Earl Leofwin, his brother,
and Earl Gyrth, his brother, and many good men; and
the Frenchmen had possession of the battle-field, all as
God granted them for the people's sins. Archbishop
Aldred and the townsmen of London would then have
child Edgar * for king, as was his true natural right ; and
Edwin and Morkere vowed to him that they would fight
together with him. But in that degree that it ought
ever to have been forwarder, so was it from day to day
later and worse ; so that at the end all passed away. This
fight was done on the day^ of Calixtus the pope. And
1 September 29.
2 Freeman {yor7n. Conquest, N.Y. 1873, 3. 273) calls this one of those
wooden fortresses ' which were so constantly run up for sudden emergencies
in Norman warfare, and which often proved the forerunners of more last-
ing buildings of stone.' The ruins of a castle still mark the site.
3 This was on the field of Senlac, near the site of Battle Abbey, about
six miles N.W. of Hastings.
* Edgar Atheling. 6 October 14.
74 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
William the earl went afterwards again to Hastings, and
there waited to see whether the people would submit to
him. But when he understood that they would not come
to liim, he went upwards with all his army which was left
to him, and that which afterwards had come from over
sea to him ; and plundered all that part which he over-
ran until he came to Berkhampstead. And there came to
meet him Archbishop Aldred, and child Edgar, and Earl
Edwin, and Earl Morkere, and all the chief men of London ;
and then submitted of necessity, when the most harm had
been done. And it was very unwise that they had not
done so before, since God would not better it, for our sms.
And they delivered hostages, and swore oaths to him ; and
he vowed to them that he would be good lord to them ;
and nevertheless, while this was in progress, they plun-
dered all that they overran. Then, on Midwinter's Day,^
Archbishop Aldred consecrated him king at Westminster ;
and he gave him a pledge upon Christ's book, and also
swore, before he would set the crown upon his head, that
he would govern this nation as well as any king before
him had at the best done, if they would be loyal to him.
Nevertheless, he laid a tribute on the people, very heavy ;
and then went, during Lent, over sea to Normandy. . . .
And Bishop Odo and Earl William ^ remained here be-
hind, and they built castles far and wide throughout the
nation, and distressed poor people ; and ever after evil grew
sore. May the end be good when God will !
AD. 1087. ... He died in Normandy the day^ after
the Nativity of St. Mary, and was buried in Caen, at St.
1 Christmas.
2 William Fitzosbern, Earl of Hereford. ' To Bishop Odo was entrusted
the guard of Kent and the south coast, while Earl William was left to
guard the northern and western borders ' (Z>. N. B.).
3 September 9.
SELECTIONS FROM OLD ENGLISH CHROXICLE 75
phen's monastery,! which he had built and richly en-
Liv^wed. Oh, how false and untrustworthy is the good of
this world ! He who had been a pow^erful kmg and the
lord of many lands, possessed not then, of all his land,
more than the space of seven feet ; and he that aforetime
had been adorned with gold and with gems lay covered
with mold. . . .
If any one would know what manner of man he was,
what honor he had, or of how many lands he was lord,
I will write of him as I have known him, I who have
looked upon him, and at one time lived in his family.
This King William, of whom I speak, was a very wise
and powerful man, and more honored and mighty than
any of his predecessors. He was mild to the good men
who loved God, but severe beyond measure toward those
who withstood his will. He erected a noble monastery on
the very spot where God granted him to conquer Eng-
land, establisliing monks in it, and making it rich. In his
days the great monastery at Canterbury w^as built, and
many others besides throughout all England. Moreover,
this land was filled with monks, who lived their life
after the rule of St. Benedict. . . . Great state did he hold :
thrice every year did he wear his crown when he was in
England : at Easter he wore it at Winchester, at Pentecost
at AVestminster, and at Christmas at Gloucester. And at
these times all the powerful men of all England were with
him — archbishops and bishops, abbots and earls, thanes
and knights. Moreover, he was a very stern and severe
man, so that no one durst do anythmg against his will.
He kept earls in bonds who acted contrary to his wishes.
He deposed bishops from their sees, and abbots from their
monasteries, he cast thanes into prison, and finally spared
1 The Abbaye aux Hommes.
76 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
not his own brother Odo, who was a very powerful bishop
in Normandy, with his see at Bayeux, and highest of aE
men, the king alone excepted. In England he had an
earldom ; and when the king was absent in Normandy, he
was the first in this land ; but him he put in prison. . . .
He ruled over England, and so closely examined into it,
by reason of his astuteness, that there was not a single
hide of land in the country whose ownership he did not
know, and its value, and afterward enter in his register.
. . . Truly men had much hardship in his time, and very
many had distress. He had castles built, and afflicted the
poor. The king was very harsh, and took from his subjects
many a mark of gold, and many a hundred pounds of
silver ; and this he took of liis people rightfully or very
wrongfully, and for little need. He fell into avarice, and
greediness he loved above everything. He established a
great deer-preserve, and passed laws that whosoever should
slay hart or hind should be blinded. As he forbade the
slaying of harts, so also of bears ; the stags he loved as if
he had been their father ; and he decreed that the hares
should go free. The rich grumbled, and the poor mur-
mured, but he was so stout that he recked not of all
their ill will. They must bend themselves wholly to his
will, if they would have life, or land, or goods, or even his
P®^^®- J. A. Giles, slightly revised
SELECTIONS FROM THE OLD ENGLISH LAWS
The laws of the early kings of England are among the first
extant written records in our language, although few are pre-
served in their original form. Among these are laws of iEthel-
bert (560-616), and one or two other kings of Kent, and of Ine,
king of Wessex (688-726). As the first extract shows, Alfred
collected and supplemented the laws of his predecessors.
SELECTIONS FROM OLD ENGLISH LAWS 779
The laws are among the most difficult of all Old English writr
ings to translate intelligibly, since they are apt to consist of brief
and allusive statements of penalties for various offenses, requir-
ing to be elucidated by such a knowledge of contemporary man-
ners and customs as must be largely supplied by inference, eked
out, in some cases, by conjecture. They are, however, of impor-
tance both to the student of constitutional history and to the gen-
eral student of Old English culture.
Thorpe's translation, in the Ancient Laws and Institutes of
England (London, 1840), is superseded by Liebermann's render-
ing into German in his excellent edition. Die Gesetze der Angel-
sachsen (Vol. 1, Halle, 1903). Much, too, may be learned from
the edition by Reinhold Schmid (2d ed., Leipzig, 1858), which
has a German translation. Consult also Turk's Legal Code of
Alfred the Great (Boston, 1893), Stubbs' Constitutional History
of England, Kemble's Saxons in England, and Essays in Anglo-
Saxon Law (by H. Adams, H. C. Lodge, E. Young, and others).
1. ALFRED'S STATEMENT CONCERNING HIS LAWS
[Alfred begins by quoting the Ten Commandments, and follot\'S
with various parts of Exod. 21, 22, and 23. He then quotes Matt.
5. 17, to show that Christ did not abrogate these precepts, and
subjoins Acts 15. 23-9. Afterward he goes on as follows :]
What ye would not that other men should do to you,
do not that to other men. From this one precept one may
learn to judge righteously ; he needs no other law-book.
Let him simply remember that he adjudge to no one what
he would not that another should adjudge to him, if he
were in quest of a legal decision upon himself.
After it came to pass that many nations had accepted
the faith of Christ, many synods assembled throughout the
world. Such there were throughout England, after they
had espoused Christianity, consisting of holy bishops and
other competent councilors. In the interests of the mercy
that Christ taught, they decreed that for almost every
if 8 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
misdeed secular rulers might without sin, and with their
consent, accept a fine, wliich they then and there pre-
scribed, for the first offense, except in the case of treason.
To tliis they dared not allow mercy, since Almighty God
allowed none to those who despised Him, and Christ, the
Son of God, allowed none to him who betrayed Him to
death; and He ordained that one should love one's lord
as himself. Accordingly in many synods they prescribed
fines for many human misdeeds, and in many synodical
records the}^ wrote here one penalty, and there another.
I, then. King Alfred, gathered these laws together, and
commanded many of those which our forefathers held and
which seemed good to me, to be written down, and many
of those which did not seem good to me I rejected upon
the advice of my councilors, and commanded that they be
kept in another manner; for I durst not venture to set
down in writing much of my own, for I knew not how
much of it would please those who should come after us.
But those things which I found — either of the days of
Ine my kinsman, or of Offa, King of the Mercians, or of
^thelbert, who was the first of the English race to receive
baptism — which seemed most just to me, those I have
gathered here, and rejected the others. I, then, Alfred,
King of the West Saxons, showed all these unto my coun-
cilors, and they said that it seemed good unto them all
that they be kept.
2. OF PLOTTING AGAINST A LORD
If any one plot against the king's life, either himself
or by harboring outlaws, or the men of one ; let him be
liable to the extent of his life and of all that he possesses.
If he wish to clear himself, let him do so according to the
SELECTIONS FROM OLD ENGLISH LAWS 79
king's wergild.^ So also we ordain for all degrees, whether
churl or noble : — he who plots against the life of his
lord, let him be liable unto him to the extent of his life
and of all that he possesses; or let him clear himself
according to his lord's wergild.
3. OF TAKING REFUGE IN A CHURCH
We also ordain unto every church that has been hal-
lowed by a bishop this right of asylum : if a foe man reach
it by running or riding, that for seven days none drag
him out. But if any one do so, then let him be liable to
pay the fine for breach of the king's peace, and that of
sanctuary. . . ? If the brethren have further need of
their church, let them keep him in another building, and
let not that have more doors than the church. Let the
head of that church take care that during this term none
give him food. If he himself be willing to dehver up his
weapons to his foes, let them keep him thirty days, and
let them send word concerning him to his kinsmen.
4. OF FEUDS
We also command that the man who knows his foe to
be dwelling at home fight not before he demand justice
of him. If he have sufficient power to besiege his foe, and
beset him within, let him keep him there seven days,
and attack him not, if he will remain within. And then,
after seven days, if he wiU surrender and deliver up his
weapons, let him be kept safe for thirty days, and let word
concerning him be sent unto his kinsmen and his friends.
1 The fine which represented the value of the king's life amounted to
about £120 or £125, corresponding to a vastly greater sum now.
2 An obscure sentence is omitted.
80 WORKS MAINLY HISTORICAL
If he flee to a church, let it be according to the privilege
of the church, as we have already said above. If he have
not sufficient power to besiege him within, let him ride to
the viceroy and beg aid of him. If he will not aid him,
let him ride unto the king before he fights. . . .
Albert S. Cook (through ' there another')
Benjamin Thorpe, revised
CHARTERS
Practically every other class of legal documents beside laws are
comprised under the general term of charters. The completest
collections are by Kemble, Codex Diplomaticus ^vi Saxonici, 6 vols.,
London, 1839-48 ; Birch, Cartularium Saxonicum, vols. 1-3, Lon-
don, 1885-93 ; cf. Earle, Handbook to the Land-Chnrters and other
Saxonic Documents, Oxford, 1888. On the whole subject see Gross,
Sources and Literature of English History (London and New York,
1900), pp. 204-7.
LUFU'S WILL
The specimen here given is the will of Lufu, dating from
about the middle of the ninth century. It may be found in Sweet,
Oldest English Texts, pp. 446-7, in Kemble, 1. 299 (No. 231), and
elsewhere. The last paragraph is in Cook's First Book in Old
English, p. 265. A facsimile is given in Keller's Angelsdchsische
Palaographie {Palcestra 43. 2), Plate 2.
*h I, Lufu, by God's grace a handmaid of the Lord, have
been seeking and pondering about the needs of my soul,
with the advice of Bishop Ceolnoth and of the monks at
Christ Church.^ I wish to bestow of the property which
God has given me, and my friends have helped me to, each
year sixty measures ^ of malt, a hundred and fifty loaves,
fifty wheat loaves, a hundred and twenty doles of bread,
1 Canterbury : Canterbury Cathedral is Christ Church. The dialect of
the will is Kentish. 2 About 240 bushels.
CHARTERS 81
one head of cattle, one hog, four rams, and two weights of
bacon and cheese, on the brethren of Christ Church, for
the behoof of my soul and the souls of my friends and
kinsmen who have helped me to property ; and let this be
every twelvemonth at the Assumption of St. Mary.^ And
let whatever man holds this land of my heirs pay this,
besides a measureful of honey, ten geese, and twenty hens.
*h I, Ceolnoth, by God's grace archbishop, ratify this with
the sign of Christ's rood, and subscribe myself
*i* Beagmund, priest, agree, and add my signature
*i* Beorufrith, priest, agree, and add my signature
*i* Wealhhere, priest *i* SwiSberht, deacon
>i* Osmund, priest *i* Beoruheah, deacon
fi* Deimund, priest *i* ^t^elmund, deacon
*h ^Selwald, deacon >i* Wighelm, deacon
*i* Werbald, deacon ^ Lufu^
*i* SifreS, deacon
>i* I, Lufu, the humble handmaid of God, establish and
confirm the aforesaid gifts and alms from my inherited
land at Mundlingham ^ to the brothers at Christ Church,
and I beseech and in the name of the living God enjoin
the man who has this land and inheritance at Mundling-
ham that he continue this donation to the end of the world.
On him who shall keep and perform w^hat I have enjoined
in this document be the blessing of heaven bestowed and
perpetuated ; but on him who shall refuse or neglect it be
the pains of hell conferred and maintained, unless he turn
and make full restitution to God and to men. Farewell.
Albert S. Cook
1 August 15. 2 Written ' Lubo.'
3 Kemble conjectures Mongeham, two miles southwest of Deal.
II
THE WORKS OF KING ALFRED, AND
MATTER RELATING TO ALFRED
83
KING ALFEED'S WORKS
King Alfred may with justice be called the father of English
prose, for although England had already given birth to a noble
poetic literature, no prose literature of any importance existed in
the vernacular before the time of the great king. There were,
indeed, various prose records, such as laws and charters, as well
as certain translations of Scripture, such as Bede's (see p. 4) ;
but nearly all prose writing that can be termed literature had
been in Latin.
King Alfred's literary work is not, strictly speaking, of a
creative sort, as it consists chiefly of translations from the Latin ;
on the other hand, it is not merely that of a plodding imitator,
since, as the present extracts show, his versions are by no means
literal, but are imbued with his own personality. His earlier ver-
sions are somewhat close, but as his work progresses his rendering
becomes so free and individual that it can no longer be called
mere translation.
Alfred's works exhibit a noticeable range of interest. They
include, in Orosius, a text-book of geography and European
history ; in Bede, a history of England ; in Boethius, a hand-
book of philosophy ; and in Augustine and Gregory, famous
ecclesiastical manuals. All of them — and the same may be
said of nearly all Old English prose — are religious in coloring,
and belong to what Ebert called ' the only universal literature
that the world has known,' that of the mediaeval church.
A feature of Alfred's versions is the prefaces, which abound
in personal allusions. The preface to Gregory's Pastoral Care
(p. 101) is often referred to as a general prologue to the king's
literary work. As that passage indicates, Alfred had various
assistants in his labors, and w^e know that a bishop, Werfrith
by name, made a translation of Gregory's Dialogues at Alfred's
request (p. 93).
The translations belong to the later period of the king's career,
and the greater part of them were probably produced in the last
decade of the ninth century.
85
86 THE WORKS OF KING ALFRED
Of numerous general works on Alfred by far the most critical
is Plummer's Life and T'unes of Alfred the Great (Oxford, 1902).
Others, interesting or valuable in various degrees, are by Pauli,
translated by Thorpe (London, 1857), Hughes,' the author of
Tom Brown at Rugby (London, 1869), Macfadyen (New York,
1901), and Bowker (London, 1899). The best brief estimate by
a historian of reputation is that of Freeman (^Norman Co7iquest
1. 33-6), who calls Alfred 'the most perfect character in history,'
and again ' the most renowned of Englishmen, the saint, the
scholar, the hero, and the lawgiver.' All modern biographies
repose principally upon Asser (see below), the Chronicle (cf. pp.
69-71), and the king's translations and prefaces (cf. pi). 100 ff.).
SELECTIONS FEOM ASSEE'S ZIFU OF KING
ALFRED
The authenticity of this Life was impugned by Thomas Wright
in 1841, by Sir Henry Howorth in 1876-7, and by an unknown
writer in 1898, and it had become somewhat the fashion to regard
it as a production of a later period, and therefore entitled to but
little credence. The doubts as to its authenticity have been satis-
factorily dispelled by the two eminent scholars who have most
recently discussed the difficulties, Plummer and Stevenson.
The former, in his Life and Times of Alfred the Great (Oxford,
1902), says (p. 52) : ' The work which bears Asser's name cannot
be later than 974, and the attempt to treat it as a forgery of the
eleventh or twelfth century must be regarded as having broken
down.' The latter, in his noble edition (Oxford, 1904), remarks
(p. vii) : ' In discussing the work I have attempted to approach
it without any bias for or against it, and throughout my endeavor
has been to subject every portion of it to as searching an exami-
nation as my knowledge and critical powers would permit. The
net result has been to convince me that, although there may be
no very definite proof that the work was written by Bishop Asser
in the lifetime of King Alfred, there is no anachronism or other
proof that it is a spurious compilation of later date. The serious
charges brought against its authenticity break down altogether
under examination, while there remain several features that poin"^
SELECTIONS FROM ASSER 87
with varying strength to the conclusion that it is, despite its
difficulties and corruptions, really a work of the time it purports
to be. This result is confirmed by the important corroboration
of some of its statements by contemporary Frankish chroniclers.'
Notwithstanding their general rehabilitation of the work, how-
ever, neither critic is prepared to trust it implicitly, partly on
account of its manifest exaggerations and of the writer's ' Celtic
imagination,' and partly because of possible interpolations and
errors of transcription.
The style of the book is not uniform. The passages translated
from the Chronicle are simpler, while in the more original parts
the author displays an unfortunate tendency to a turgid and at
times bombastic manner of writing.
For all matters regarding the manuscript, the earlier editions,
etc., as well as for copious illustrative notes on the text, the
reader is referred to Stevenson's edition.
1. ALFRED'S REARING (22) i
He was extraordinarily beloved by both his father and
mother, and indeed by all the people, beyond all his
brothers ; in inseparable companionship with them he was
reared at the royal court. As he advanced through the
years of infancy and youth, he appeared more comely in
person than his brothers, as in countenance, speech, and
manners he was more pleasing than they. His noble birth
and noble nature implanted in liim from his cradle a love
of wisdom above all things, even amid all the occupations
of this present life ; but — with shame be it spoken ! —
by the unworthy neglect of his parents and governors he
remained illiterate till he was twelve years old or more,
though by day and night he was an attentive listener to
the Saxon poems which he often heard recited, and, being
apt at learning, kept them iu his memory. He was a
1 The numbers in parentheses refer to the chapters of Stevenson's
^ditiou.
88 THE WORKS OF KING ALFRED
zealous practiser of hunting in all its branches, and fol-
lowed the chase with great assiduity and success ; for his
skill and good fortune in this art, and in all the other
gifts of God, were beyond those of every one else, as I
have often witnessed.
2. ALFRED AND THE BOOK OF SAXON POEMS (23)
Now on a certain day his mother was showing him
and his brothers a book of Saxon poetry, which she held
in her hand, and finally said : ' Whichever of you can
soonest learn this volume, to him will I give it.' Stimu-
lated by these words, or rather by divine inspiration, and
allured by the beautifully illuminated letter at the begin-
ning of the volume, Alfred spoke before all his brothers,
who, though his seniors in age, were not so in grace, and
answered his mother : ' Will you really give that book to
that one of us who can first understand and repeat it to
you ? ' At this his mother smiled with satisfaction, and
confirmed what she had before said : ' Yes,' said she, ' that
I wilL' Upon this the boy took the book out of her hand,
and went to his master and learned it by heart, where-
upon he brought it back to his mother and recited it.
3. ALFRED'S LOVE OF LEARNING (25)
This he would confess, with many lamentations and
with sighs from the bottom of his heart, to have been
one of his greatest difficulties and impediments in this
present life, that when he was young and had leisure and
capacity for learning, he had no masters ; but when he
was more advanced in years, he was continually occupied,
not to say harassed, day and night, by so many diseases
SELECTIONS FROM ASSER 89
unknown to all the physicians of this island, as well as
by internal and external anxieties of sovereignty, and by
invasions of the heathen by sea and land, that though he
then had some store of teachers and writers, it was quite
impossible for him to study. But yet among the impedi-
ments of this present life, from childhood to the present
day and, as I believe, even until his death, he has con-
tinued to feel the same insatiable desire.
4. BATTLE OF ASHDOWNi (37-39)
Eoused by this grief and shame, the Christians, after
four days, with all their forces and much spirit advanced
to battle against the aforesaid army, at a place called
Ashdown,2 which in Latin signifies 'Ash's Hill.' The
heathen, forming in two divisions, arranged two shield-
walls of similar size ; and since they had two kings and
many ealdormen,^ they gave the middle part of the army
to the two kings, and the other part to all the ealdormen.
The Christians, perceiving this, divided their army also
into two troops, and with no less zeal formed shield-walls.
But Alfred, as I have been told by truthful eye-witnesses,
marched up swiftly with liis men to the battle-field ; for
King ^thelred had remained a long time in liis tent in
prayer, hearing mass, and declaring that he would not
depart thence alive till the priest had done, and that he
was not disposed to abandon the service of God for that
of men ; and accordmg to these sentiments he acted. This
faith of the Christian king availed much with the Lord,
as I shall show more fully in the sequel.
1 The first paragraph is chiefly from the Chronicle under A.D. 871 ;
cf. p. 69.
2 The Berkshire Downs (Stevenson) .
3 The Old English name for those whom the Danes called earls.
90 THE WORKS OF KING ALFRED
Now the Christians had determined that King ^thel-
red, with his men, should attack the two heathen kings,
and that his brother Alfred, with his troops, should take
the chance of war against all the leaders of the heathen.
Things being so arranged on both sides, the king still con-
tinued a long time in prayer, and the heathen, prepared
for battle, had hastened to the field. Then Alfred, though
only second in command, could no longer support the
advance of the enemy, unless he either retreated or charged
upon them without waiting for his brother. At length,
with the rush of a wild boar, he courageously led the Chris-
tian troops against the hostile army, as he had already
designed, for, although the king had not yet arrived, he
relied upon God's counsel and trusted to His aid. Hence,
having closed up his shield-wall in due order, he straight-
way advanced his standards against the foe. At length
King ^thelred, having finished the prayers in which he
was engaged, came up, and, having invoked the King of
the universe, entered upon the engagement.^
But here I must inform those who are ignorant of the
fact that the field of battle was not equally advantageous
to both parties, since the heathen had seized the higher
ground, and the Christian array was advancing up-hill.
In that place there was a solitary low thorn-tree, which I
have seen with my own eyes, and round this the opposing
forces met in strife with deafening uproar from all, the
one side bent on evil, the other on fighting for hfe, and
dear ones, and fatherland. Wlien both armies had fought
bravely and fiercely for a long while, the heathen, being
unable by God's decree longer to endure the onset of the
Christians, the larger part of their force being slain, betook
themselves to shameful flight. There fell one of the two
1 This sentence is suijplied by Stevenson from Florence of Worcester.
SELECTIONS FROM ASSER 91
heathen kings and five ealdormen ; many thousand of
their men were either slain at this spot or lay scattered
far and wide over the whole field of Ashdown. Thus
there fell King Bagsecg, Ealdorman Sidroc the Elder and
Ealdorman Sidroc the Younger, Ealdorman Osbern, Eal-
dorman Ersena, and Ealdorman Harold ; and the whole
heathen army pursued its flight, not only until night, but
until the next day, even until they reached the stronghold
from which they had sallied. The Christians followed,
slaying all they could reach, until it became dark.
. 5. ALFRED'S VARIED PURSUITS (76)
In the meantime, the king, during the wars and frequent
trammels of this present life, the invasions of the heathen,
and liis own daily infirmities of body, continued to carry
on the government, and to practise hunting in all its
branches ; to teach his goldsmiths ^ and all his artificers,
his falconers, hawkers, and dog-keepers ; to build houses,
majestic and rich beyond all custom of his predecessors,
after his own new designs ; to recite the Saxon books, and
especially to learn by heart Saxon poems, and to make
others learn them, he alone never ceasing from studying
most dihgently to the best of his abihty. He daily attended
mass and the other services of religion; recited certain
psalms, together with prayers, and the daily and nightly
hour-service ; and frequented the churches at night, as I
have said, that he might pray in secret, apart from others.
He bestowed alms and largesses both on natives and on
foreigners of all countries ; was most affable and agreeable
to all ; and was skilful in the investigation of things un-
known.^ Many Franks, Frisians, Gauls, heathen, Welsh,
1 Cf. Alfred's jewel, and the book upon it by Professor Earle.
2 Cf . the account of the voyages of Ohthere and Wulfstan, pp. 109 ff.
92 THE WORKS OF KING ALFRED
Irish, and Bretons, noble and simple, submitted voluntarily
to his dominion ; and all of them, according to their worthi-
ness, he ruled, loved, honored, and enriched with money
and power, as if they had been his own people. Moreover,
he was sedulous and zealous in the habit of hearing the
divine Scriptures read by his own countrymen, or if by
any chance it so happened that any one arrived from
abroad, would hear prayers in company with foreigners.
His bishops, too, and all the clergy, his ealdormen and
nobles, his personal attendants and friends, he loved with
wonderful affection. Their sons, too, who were bred up
in the royal household, were no less dear to him than his
own ; he never ceased to instruct them in all kinds of good
morals, and, among other things, himself to teach them
literature night and day. But as if he had no consolation
in all these things, and suffered no other annoyance either
from within or without, he was so harassed by daily and
nightly sadness that he complained and made moan to the
Lord, and to all who were admitted to his familiarity and
affection, that Almighty God had made him ignorant of
divine wisdom and of the liberal arts ; in this emulating
the pious, famous, and wealthy Solomon, king of the He-
brews, who at the outset, despising all present glory and
riches, asked wisdom of God, and yet found both, namely,
wisdom and present glory; as it is written, ' Seek ye first the
kingdom of God and liis righteousness, and all these things
shall be added unto you.'^ . . . He would avail himself
of every opportunity to procure assistants in his good de-
signs, to aid him in his strivings after wisdom, that he
might attain to what he aimed at; and, like a prudent
bee, which, rising in summer at early morning from her
beloved cells, steers her course with rapid flight along the
1 Matt. 6. 33.
SELECTIONS FROM ASSER 93
uncertain paths of the air, and descends on the manifold
and varied flowers of grasses, herbs, and shrubs, essaying
that which most pleases her, and bearing it home, he
directed the eyes of his mind afar, and sought that with-
out which he had not within, that is, in his own kingdom.
6. ALFRED'S SCHOLARLY ASSOCIATES: WERFRITH,
PLEGMUND, ^THELSTAN, A^B WERWULF (77)
But God at that time, as some consolation to the king's
benevolence, enduring no longer his kindly and just com-
plaint, sent as it were certain luminaries, namely, Wer-
frith, bishop of the church of Worcester, a man well
versed in divine Scripture, who, by the king's command,
was the first to interpret with clearness and elegance the
books of the Dialogues of Pope Gregory and Peter, Ms dis-
ciple, from Latin into Saxon, sometimes putting sense
for sense ; then Plegmund, a Mercian by birth, archbishop
of the church of Canterbury, a venerable man, endow^ed
with wisdom ; besides j:Ethelstan and Werwulf, learned
priests and clerks, Mercians by birth. These four King
Alfred had called to him from Mercia, and he exalted
them ^Yith many honors and powers in the kingdom of the
West Saxons, not to speak of those which Archbishop
Plegmund and Bishop Werfrith had in ]\Iercia. By the
teaching and wisdom of all these the king's desire in-
creased continually, and was gratified. Night and day,
whenever he had any leisure, he commanded such men as
these to read books to him — for he never suffered him-
self to be without one of them — so that he came to pos-
sess a knowledge of almost every book, though of himself
he could not yet understand anything of the books, since
he had not yet learned to read anything.
94 THE WORKS OF KING ALFRED
7. HOW ALFRED REWARDS SUBMISSION (81)
Nor was it in vain that they all gained the friendship
of the king. For those who desired to augment their
worldly power obtained power ; those who desired money
gained money; those who desired his friendship acquired
his friendship ; those who wished more than one secured
more than one. But all of them had his love and guardian-
ship and defense from every quarter, so far as the king,
with all his men, could defend himself. When therefore
I had come to him at the royal vill called Leonaford, I
was honorably received by him, and remained that time
with him at his court eight months ; during which I read
to him whatever books he liked, of such as he had at
hand; for this is his peculiar and most confirmed habit,
both night and day, amid all his other occupations of mind
and body,^ either himself to read books, or to listen to the
reading of others. And when I frequently had sought his
permission to return, and had in no way been able to
obtain it, at length when I had made up my mind by all
means to demand it, he called me to him at twilight on
Christmas Eve, and gave me two letters in which was a
manifold list of all the things which were in the two
monasteries which are called in Saxon Congresbury and
Banwell, and on that same day he delivered to me those
two monasteries with everything in them, together with a
silken pallium of great value, and of incense a load for a
strong man, adding these words, that he did not give me
these trifling presents because he was unwilling hereafter
to give me greater. For in the course of time he unex-
pectedly gave me Exeter, with the whole diocese which
belonged to him in Wessex and in Cornwall, besides gifts
1 Cf . p. 117.
SELECTIONS FROM ASSER 95
every day without number of every kind of worldly wealth ;
these it would be too long to enumerate here, lest it should
weary my readers. But let no one suppose that I have
mentioned these presents in this place for the sake of glory
or flattery, or to obtain greater honor ; I call God to wit-
ness that I have not done so, but that I might certify to
those who are ignorant how profuse he was in giving. He
then at once gave me permission to ride to those two
monasteries, so full of all good things, and afterwards to
return to my own.
8. ALFRED'S MANUAL (88, 89 1)
On a certain day we were both of us sitting in the
king's chamber, talking on all kinds of subjects, as usual,
and it happened that I read to him a quotation out of a
certain book. While he was listening to it attentively
with both ears, and pondering it deeply with his inmost
mind, he suddenly showed me a little book which he car-
ried in his bosom, wherein were WTitten the daily course,
together with certain Psalms and prayers which he had
read in his youth, and thereupon bade me write the quo-
tation in that book. . . . Since I could find no blank space
in that book wherein to write the quotation, it being all
full of various matters, I delayed a httle, chiefly that I
might stir up the choice understanding of the kiug to a
higher knowledge of the divine testimonies. L^pon his
urging me to make haste and write it quickly, I said to
him, ' Are you williug that I should write that quotation
on some separate leaf ? Perhaps we shall find one or more
other such which ^\ill please you ; and if that should
happen, we shall be glad that we have kept this by itself.'
1 It is probable, tbough not absolutely certain, that these two chapters
refer to the same book.
96 THE WORKS OF KING ALFRED
' Your plan is good,' said he ; so I gladly made haste to
get ready a pamphlet of four leaves, at the head of which
I wrote what he had bidden me ; and that same day I
\vrote in it, at his request, and as I had predicted, no less
than three other quotations which pleased him. From
that time we daily talked together, and investigated the
same subject by the help of other quotations which we
found and which pleased him, so that the pamphlet
gradually became full, and deservedly so, for it is ^^Titten,
* The righteous man builds upon a moderate foundation,
and by degrees passes to gi^eater things.' ^ . . .
AVhen that first quotation had been copied, he was eager
at once to read, and to translate into Saxon, and then to
teach many others. . . . Inspired by God, he began the
rudiments of Holy Scripture on the sacred feast of St.
Martin. Then he went on, as far as he was able, to learn
the flowers collected from various quarters by any and all
of his teachers, and to reduce them into the form of one
book, although jumbled together, until it became almost
as large as a psalter. This book he called his Enchiridion
or Handbook,^ because he carefully kept it at hand day
and night, and found, as he then used to say, no small
consolation therein.
9. ALFRED'S TROUBLES (91)
Kow the king was pierced with many nails of tribula-
tion, though established in the royal sway ; for from the
twentieth year of his age to the present year, which is his
forty-fifth, he has been constantly afflicted with most
severe attacks of an unknown disease, so that there is not
1 Author unknown.
2 Still known by William of Malmesbury (d. 1143) ; cf. his Gesta Ponti-
Jicum, chaps. 188, 190.
SELECTIONS FROM ASSER 97
a single hour in which he is not either suffering from that
malady, or nigh to despair by reason of the gloom which
is occasioned by his fear of it. Moreover the constant in-
vasions of foreign nations, by which he was continually
harassed by land and sea, without any interval of quiet,
constituted a sufficient cause of disturbance.
AMiat shall I say of his repeated expeditions against
the heathen, his wars, and the incessant occupations of
government ? . . . AMiat shall I say of his restoration of
cities and towns, and of others which he built where none
had l^een before ? of golden and silver buildings, built in
incomparable style under his direction ? of the royal halls
and chambers, wonderfully erected of stone and wood at
his command ? of the royal xtLLs constructed of stones
removed from their old site, and finely rebuilt by the
king's command in more fitting places ?
Not to speak of the disease above mentioned, he was
disturbed by the quarrels of his subjects, who would of
their own choice endure little or no toil for the common
need of the kingdom. He alone, sustained by the diAine
aid, once he had assumed the helm of government, strove
in every way, hke a skilful pilot, to steer his ship, laden
with much wealth, into the safe and longed-for harbor of
his country, though almost all his crew were weary, suffer-
ing them not to faint or hesitate, even amid the waves
and manifold whirlpools of this present life. Tlius his
bishops, ealdormen, nobles, favorite thanes, and prefects,
who, next to God and the king, had the whole government
of the kingdom, as was fitting, continually received from him
instruction, compliment, exhortation, and command ; nay,
at last, if they were disobedient, and his long patience was
exhausted, he would reprove them severely, and censure
in every way their vulgar folly and obstinacv ; and thus
98 THE WORKS OF KING ALFRED
he ^yisely gained and bonnd them to his own wishes and
the common interests of the whole kingdom. But if, owing
to the sluggisliness of the people, these admonitions of the
king were either not fulfilled, or were begun late at the
moment of necessity, and so, because they were not carried
through, did not redound to the advantage of those who
put them in execution — take as an example the fortresses
which he ordered, but which are not yet begun or, begun
late, have not yet been completely finished — when hostile
forces have made invasions by sea, or land, or both, then
those who had set themselves against the imperial orders
have been put to shame and overwhelmed with vain
repentance.
10. ALFRED JUDGES THE POOR WITH EQUITY (105)
[The king] showed himself a minute investigator of the
truth in all his judgments, and this especially for the sake
of the poor, to whose interest, day and night, among other
duties of this life, he was ever wonderfully attentive. For
in the whole kingdom the poor, besides him, had few or
no helpers ; for almost all the powerful and noble of that
country had turned their thoughts rather to secular than
to divine things : each was more bent on worldly business,
to his own profit, than on the common weal.
11. HIS CORRECTION OF UNJUST AND INCOM-
PETENT JUDGES (106)
He strove also, in his judgments, for the benefit of both
his nobles and commons, who often quarreled fiercely
among themselves at the meetings of the ealdormen and
sheriffs, so that hardly one of them admitted the justice
of what had been decided by these ealdormen and sheriffs.
SELPXTIOXS FROM ASSER 99
In consequence of this pertinacious and obstinate dissen-
sion, all felt constrained to give sureties to abide by the
decision of the king, and both parties hastened to carry
out their engagements. But if any one was conscious of
injustice on liis side in the suit, though by law and agree-
ment he was compelled, however reluctant, to come for
judgment before a judge like this, yet with his own good
will he never would consent to come. For he knew that in
that place no part of his evil practice would remain hidden ;
and no wonder, for the king was a most acute investigator
in executing his judgments, as he was in all other things.
He inquired into almost all the judgments which were
given in his absence, throughout all his dominion, whether
they were just or unjust. If he perceived there was iniquity
in those judgments, he would, of his own accord, mildly
ask those judges, either in his own person, or through
others who were in trust with liim, why they had judged
so unjustly, whether througli ignorance or malevolence —
that is, whether for the love or fear of any one, the hatred
of another, or the desire of some one's money. At length,
if the judges acknowledged they had given such judgment
because they knew no better, he discreetly and moderately
reproved their inexperience and folly in such terms as
these : ' I greatly wonder at your assurance, that whereas,
by God's favor and mine, you have taken upon you the
rank and office of the wise, you have neglected the studies
and labors of the wise. Either, therefore, at once give up
the administration of the earthly powers which you possess
or endeavor more zealously to study the lessons of wisdom.
Such are my commands.' At these words the ealdormen
and sheriff s would be filled with terror at being thus severely
corrected, and would endeavor to turn with all their might
to the study of justice, so that, wonderful to say, almost all
LOPr
100 THE WORKS OF KING ALFRED
his ealdormen, sheriffs, and officers, though unlearned from
childhood, gave themselves up to the study of letters, choos-
ing rather to acquire laboriously an unfamiliar discipline
than to resign their functions. But if any one, from old age
or the sluggishness of an untrained mind, was unable to
make progress in literary studies, he would order his son,
if he had one, or one of his kinsmen, or, if he had no one
else, his own freedman or servant, whom he had long before
advanced to the office of reading, to read Saxon books
before him night and day, whenever he had any leisure.
And then they would lament with deep sighs from their
inmost souls that in their youth they had never attended to
such studies. They counted happy the youth of the present
day, who could be delightfully instructed in the liberal
arts, while they considered themselves wretched in that
they had neither learned these things in their youth, nor,
now they were old, were able to do so. This skill of young
and old in acquiring letters, I have set forth as a means of
characterizing the aforesaid king.
Albert S. Cook
SELECTIONS FROM GREGORY'S
PASTORAL CARE
Gregory the Great (540-604) was a great favorite with
authors of the Old English period, not only as the most famous
of popes, the patron of monasticism, the reformer of the papal see
and of the liturgy, and as one of the four great doctors of the
Latin church, but also on account of his particular interest in
England. The story of his life is told by Bede (EccL Hist. 2. 1 ;
cf. pp. 23-31), and by ^Ifric (Horn. 2. 9).
The Cura (or Regula) Pastoralis, a handbook on the priestly
office and the art of teaching, ranks, together with his homilies,
letters, and hymns, among the most important of his undoubted
w^orks. ^Ifric refers to it as one that ' every priest must needs
possess.' For Alcuin's opinion see p. 269.
SELECTIONS FROM GREGORY 101
The Pastoral Care is probably the earliest of Alfred's transla-
tions ; it is also the most literal, the changes consisting, in gen-
eral, only of the occasional insertion of an explanatory phrase or
reference. A complete translation may be found in Sweet's edi-
tion of the Old English text (London, 1871).
For material on Gregory see the Dictionary of Christian Biog-
raphy, Milman's History of Latin Christianity, and Dudden's Gregory
the Great (New York, 1905).
1. ALFRED'S PREFACE
This book is for Worcester ^
King Alfred bids greet Bishop Werfrith with his words
lovingly and with friendship; and I let it be known to
thee that it has very often come into my mind what wise
men there formerly were throughout England, both of
sacred and secular orders ; and what happy times there
were then throughout, England ; and how the kings who
had power over the nation in those days obeyed God and
His ministers ; how they preserved peace, morahty, and
order at home, and at the same time enlarged their terri-
tory abroad ; and how they prospered both with war and
with wisdom ; and also how zealous the sacred orders
were both in teaching and learning, and in all the services
they owed to God ; and how foreigners came to this land
in search of wisdom and mstruction, and how we should
now have to get them from abroad if we were to have
them. So general was its decay in England that there
were very few on this side of the Humber who could
understand their rituals in English, or translate a letter
from Latin into English ; and I believe that there were not
many beyond the Humber. There were so few of them
1 The name of the diocese and of the bishop of course varied in the
different copies.
102 THE WORKS OF KING ALFRED
that I cannot remember a single one south of the Thames
when I came to the throne. Thanks be to Almighty God
that we have any teachers among us now. And therefore
I command thee to do as I believe thou art willing, to
disengage thyself from worldly matters as often as thou
canst, that thou mayest apply the wisdom which God has
given thee wherever thou canst. Consider what punish-
ments would come upon us on account of this world, if
we neither loved it [wisdom] ourselves nor suffered other
men to obtain it : we should love the name only of Chris-
tian, and very few the virtues. When I considered all this,
I remembered also that I saw, before it had been all rav-
aged and burned, how the churches throughout the whole
of England stood filled with treasures and books ; and
there was also a great multitude of God's servants, but
they had very little knowledge of the books, for they could
not understand anything of them, because they were not
written in their own language. As if they had said : ' Our
forefathers, who formerly held these places, loved wisdom,
and through it they obtained w^ealth and bequeathed it to
us. In this we can still see their tracks, but we cannot
follow them, and therefore we have lost both the wealth
and the wisdom, because we would not incline our hearts
after their example.' When I remembered all this, I won-
dered extremely that the good and wise men who were
formerly all over England, and had perfectly learned all
the books, had not wished to translate them into their own
language. But again I soon answered myself and said:
' They did not think that men would ever be so careless,
and that learning would so decay ; through that desire
they abstained from it, since they wished that the wisdom
in this land might increase with our knowlege of lan-
ffuas^es.' Then I remembered how the law was first known
SELECTIONS FROM GREGORY 103
in Hebrew, and again, when the Greeks had learned it,
they translated the whole of it into their own language,
and all other books besides. And again the Romans, when
they had learned them, translated the whole of them by
learned interpreters into their own language. And also
all other Christian nations translated a part of them into
their own language. Therefore it seems better to me, if
you think so, for us also to translate some books which
are most needful for all men to know into the language
which we can all understand, and for you to do as we
very easily can if we have tranquillity enough, that is,
that all the youth now in England of free men, who are
rich enough to be able to devote themselves to it, be set
to learn as long as they are not fit for any other occu-
pation, until they are able to read Enghsh writing well :
and let those be afterwards taught more in the Latin lan-
guage who are to continue in learning, and be promoted
to a higher rank. A\Tien I remembered how the knowl-
edge of Latin had formerly decayed throughout England,
and yet many could read English writing, I began, among
other various and manifold troubles of this kingdom, to
translate into English the book which is called in Latin
Pastoralis, and in English Sheiolierd' s Book, sometimes
word by word, and sometimes according to the sense, as I
had learned it from Plegmund my archbishop, and Asser
my bishop, and Grimbald my mass-priest, and John my
mass-priest. And when I had learned it ag I could best
understand it, and as I could most clearly interpret it, I
translated it into English ; and I will send a copy to every
bishopric in my kingdom; and in each there is a book-mark
worth fifty mancuses. And I command in God's name
that no man take the book-mark from the book, or the
book from the monastery. It is uncertain how long there
104 THE WORKS OF KING ALFRED
may be such learned bishops as now, thanks be to God,
there are nearly everywhere ; therefore I wish them ^ al-
ways to remain in their places unless the bishop wish to
take them with him, or they be lent out anywhere, or any
one be making a copy from them.
Albert S. Cook
2. GREGORY'S PREFACE
Thou dearest brother, very friendly and very profitably
thou blamedst me, and with humble spirit thou chidedst
me, because I hid myself, and wished to flee the burden
of pastoral care. The heaviness of which burdens (all that
I remember of it) I will write of in this present book, lest
they seem to any one easy to undertake ; and I also advise
no one to desire them who manages them rashly; and let
him who desires them raslily and unrighteously fear ever
undertaking them. Now I wish this discourse to rise in
the mind of the learner as on a ladder, step by step, nearer
and nearer, until it firmly stands on tlie floor of the mind
which learns it ; and therefore I divide it into four parts :
one of the divisions is how he is to attain the dignity ; the
second, how he is to live in it ; the third is how he is to
teach in it ; the fourth is how he is to desire to perceive
his own faults, and subdue them, lest, having attained it,
he lose his humility, or, again, lest his life be unlike his
ministration, or he be too presumptuous and severe because
he has attained the post of instruction; but let the fear of
his own faults moderate it, and let him confirm with the
example of his life his teaching for those who do not be-
lieve his words ; and when he has performed a good work,
let him remember the evil he has done, that his contri-
tion for his evil deeds may moderate his joy for his good
1 The books.
SELECTIONS FROM GREGORY 105
works; lest he be puffed up in spirit before the eyes of
the unseen Judge, and inflated with pride, and so through
his egotism lose his good w^orks. But there are many who
seem to me to be very similar in want of learning, who,
although they were never disciples, yet wish to be teachers,
and think the burden of teaching very light, because they do
not know the power of its greatness. From the \ev\ door
of this book, that is, from the beginning of this discourse,
the unwary are driven away and blamed, who arrogate to
themselves the art of teaching which they never learned.
3. OF THE BURDEN OF RULE, AND HOW THE TEACHER
LS TO DESPLSE ALL TOILS, AND HOW AFRAID
HE MUST BE OF EVERY LUXURY (3) ^
AVe have said thus much in few words, because we
wished to show how great is the burden of teaching, lest
any one dare undertake it who is unworthy of it, lest he
through desire of worldly honor undertake the guidance
of perdition. Very justly the apostle James forbade it
when he said, * Brothers, let there not be too many masters
among you.' ^
Therefore the Mediator Himself between God and men,
that is Christ, shunned undertaking earthly rule. He
who surpassed all the wisdom of the higher spirits, and
reigned in heaven before the world was, it is written in
the Gosfjel that the Jews came and wished to make Him
king by force. WTien the Saviour perceived it. He dismissed
them and hid Himself. A\Tio could easier rule men without
sin than He who created them ? He did not shun suprem-
acy because any man was worthier of it, but He wished to
set us an example of not coveting it too much ; and also
1 The numbers in parentheses refer to the sections of the original text.
2 Cf. James 3. 1.
106 THE WORKS OF KING ALFRED
wished to suffer for us. He wished not to be king, yet of
His own free will He came to the cross. He shunned the
honor of reigning, and chose the punishment of the most
ignominious death, that we who are His members might
learn from Him to shun the seductions of tliis world ; and
also that we might not dread its fear and terror, but might ^
for the sake of truth love toil, and dread luxury and there-
fore avoid it.2 For through luxury men are often iuflated
with pride, whUe hardships through pain and sorrow purify
and humble them. In prosperity the heart is puffed up ; in
adversity, even if it were formerly puffed up, it is humbled.
In prosperity men forget themselves; in adversity they
must remember themselves, even if they are unwilling.
In prosperity they often lose the good they formerly did ;
in adversity they often repair the evil they long ago did.
Often a man is subjected to the instruction of adversity,
although before he would not follow the moral example
and instruction of his teacher. But although schooled and
taught by adversity, soon, if he attain to power, through
the homage of the people he becomes proud and accus-
tomed to presumption. Thus ^ King Saul at first declined
the throne, and deemed himself quite unworthy of it ; * but
as soon as he obtaiued the rule of the kingdom, he became
proud, and was angry with that same Samuel who formerly
brought him to the throne, and consecrated him, because
he told him of his faults before the people — since he
could not control him before with their approval — and
when he wished to depart from him, he seized him, and
tore his clothes,^ and insulted him.
1 Sweet, ' and.'
2 This is much more concise and clear in the Latin : ' Ut membra ejus
videlicet discerent f avores mundi fugere, terrores minime timere, pro veri-
tate adversa diligere, prospera formidando declinare.'
3 Sweet, ' As.' ^ i gam. 9. 21. 5 i gam. 15. 27.
SELECTIONS FROM GREGORY 107
4. HOW THE TEACHER IS TO BE SYMPATHIZING
WITH AND SOLICITOUS ABOUT ALL MEN
IN THEIR TROUBLES (16)
The teacher must be the nearest to all men and sym-
pathizing with them in their troubles, and elevated above
all with the divine foresight of his mind, that through his
pious benevolence he may take on himself the sins of
other men, and also by the lofty contemplation of his
mind surpass himself with the desire of invisible things,
and that, aspiring after such lofty tilings, he may not
despise his weak and sinful neighbors, nor, on the other
hand, through their weakness give up his lofty aspirations.
. . . Therefore Moses often went in and out of the temple,
because in it he was led to divine contemplation, and out-
side he occupied himself with the people's wants. In it
he contemplated in his mind the mysteries of godliness,
and brought them out thence to the people, and pro-
claimed what they were to do and observe. And when-
ever he was in doubt he ran back into the temple and
asked God about it before the ark,^ in which was the cov-
enant of the temple, thus setting an example to those who
are now rulers. When they are uncertain about anything
which they are to do outside, they must return to their
mind, and there ask God, as Moses did before the ark in
the temple. If they still doubt there, let them go to the
Holy Scriptures, and ask there what they are to do or teach.
For Truth itself, that is Christ,^ when on earth prayed on
mountains and in retired places, and performed His mira-
cles in cities, thus preparing the path of imitation for good
teachers, lest they despise the company of weak and sin-
ful men, though they themselves aspire to the highest.
1 Cf. Exod. 25. 22; 26. 33; 31. 9, H- 2 gge John 14. 6.
108 THE WORKS OF KING ALFRED
Because when love descends through humanity and is oc-
cupied with the need of its ^ neighbors, it rises marvelously ;
and the more cheerfully it descends, the easier it ascends,
signifying that those who are set above others are to
appear such ^ that their subjects may not through shame
fear confessing to them their secrets, that when the sinful
are overwhelmed with the waves of temptation they may
hasten to take refuge in the heart of the teacher for confes-
sion, like a child in its mother's bosom, and wash away
the sins wherewith they think themselves polluted, with
his help and counsel, and become purer than they were
before, washed in the tears of their prayers.
Henry Sweet
SELECTIONS FROM OEOSIUS' UNIVERSAL
HISTORY
Orosius, a Spaniard of the fifth century a.d., produced at the
request of St. Augustine a compendious history of the world,
entitled Historiarum Libri VTT adversus Paganos (best edition,
Vienna, 1882). As this title intimates, the object of the work
was to vindicate the Christian era from the charge of producing
the turmoil and bloodshed then current in the Roman Empire.
In this respect the work resembles Augustine's own De Civiiate
Dei. Like many mediaeval chroniclers, Orosius attempts to give
to his work a specious semblance of completeness and antiquity
by 'beginning at the beginning.' Thus the history, after gome
geographical descriptions, opens with an account of Xinus,
king of Assyria, who 'first began to reign in this world,' and
his queen Semiramis. Thereafter follows the destruction of
Sodom. Books 4-6 deal with the history of Rome. The history
is brought down to the year 414 a.d.
In translating Orosius, King Alfred made numerous and
important changes. He shortened the work by an entire book,
omitted much of Orosins' tedious moralizing, and made at least
1 Sweet, * his.' - Sweet, ' let themselves be seen.'
SELECTIONS FROM OROSIUS' HISTORY 109
one addition of the first importance, the voyages of Ohthere and
Wulfstan.
Both the Old English and the Latin texts may be consulted
in Sweet's edition, London, 1883. An entire modern English
rendering may be found in Bosworth's edition, London, 1859.
1. THE VOYAGES OF OHTHERE AXD WULFSTAN
This section of the HiMory, entirely original with Alfred, is
the Farthest North of the ninth century. It well displays Alfred's
keen interest in exploration, in foreigners (cf. pp. 91, 92), and in
ethnology, as well as his zeal in recording newly acquired
knowledge. For the geography of the passage the reader is
referred to Hampson's Geography of King Alfred in Bosworth's
edition. By consulting an atlas, the reader can trace Ohthere 's
journey along the northern coasts of Norway and Lapland to the
White Sea, and the voyage of Wulfstan in the Baltic Sea,
from Schleswig along the northern coasts of Mecklenburg and
Pomerania. Longfellow's poem on the subject is well known.
Ohthere's First Voyage
Ohthere ^ told King Alfred, his lord, that he, of all the
Norwegians, dwelt farthest to the north. He said that he
lived in the northern part of the country, by the shore of
the West Sea. Notwithstanding, the land extended yet
farther to the north ; but it was all waste, save in a few
places here and there where Finns dwell, attracted by the
hunting in winter and the sea-fishing in summer. He
said that at a certain time he wished to discover how far
north the land extended and whether anybody lived north
of the waste. So he set out due north along the coast for
three day?, with the waste land to starboard and the high
seas to larboard. By that time he was as far north as
whale-fishers ever go. Upon this, he proceeded due north
as far as he could sail in the next three days. At that
1 Pronounce Ocht'-hair-e (with the ch as in German).
110 THE WORKS OF KING ALFRED
point the land curved to the east — or the sea in on the
land, he knew not which; all he knew was that there
he waited for a wind from the west, or somewhat from
the northwest, and so sailed east, close to land, as far as
he could in four days. There he was obliged to wait for
a \vind from due north, for at that point the land curved
due south — or the sea in on the land, he knew not which.
Thence he sailed due south, close to land, as far as he
could in five days. At that pomt a great river extended
up into the land. Then they turned up into tliis river, for
they durst not sail beyond it for dread of hostile treatment,
the land being all inhabited on the other side of the river.
He had not encountered any inhabited land since leaving
his own home, for to the right the land was uninhabited
all the way, save for fishermen, fowlers, and hunters, and
these were all Finns ; to the left there was always open
sea. The Permians had cultivated their land very well,
but they durst not enter it. The land of the Terfinns was
all waste, save where hunters, fishers, or fowlers encamped.
The Permians told him many stories both about their
own country and about countries w^hich were round them,
but he knew not what was true, because he did not see it
himself. The Finns and the Permians, it seemed to him,
spoke nearly the same language. He made this voyage, in
addition to his purpose of seeing the country, chiefly for
walruses, for they have very good bone in their teeth —
they brought some of these teeth to the king — and their
hides are very good for ship-ropes. This whale is much
smaller than other whales, being not more than seven ells
long ; but the best whale-fishing is in his own country —
those are eight and forty ells long, and the lai"gest fifty
ells long. He said he was one of a party of six who
killed sixty of these in two days.
SELECTIONS FROM OROSIUS' HISTORY 111
Ohthere was a very wealthy man in such possessions as
constitute their wealth, that is, in wild beasts. He still,
at the time when he came to the king, had six hundred
tame deer that he had not sold. They call these reindeer.
Six of these were decoy deer, which are very valuable
among the Finns, for it is with them that they capture
the wild reindeer. He was among the first men in the
land, though he had not more than twenty horned cattle,
twenty sheep, and twenty swine, and the little that he
plowed he plowed with horses. But their income is chiefly
in the tribute that the Finns pay them — skins of animals,
feathers of birds, whalebone, and ship-ropes made of
whale's hide and seal's hide. Every one pays according
to his means ; the richest has to pay fifteen marten skins
and five reindeer skins ; one bear skin, forty bushels of
feathers, a bear- or otter-skin kirtle, and two sliip-ropes,
each sixty ells long, one made of whale's hide and the
other of seal's.
He said that the country of the Northmen was very
long and very narrow. All that his man can use for
either grazing or ploughing lies by the sea, and even that
is very rocky in some places ; and to the east, alongside
the inhabited land, lie wild moors. In these waste lands
dwell the Finns. And the inhabited land is broadest to
the eastward, growing ever narrower the farther north.
To the east it may be sixty miles broad, or even a little
broader, and midway thirty or broader ; and to the north,
where it was narrowest, he said it might be three miles
broad up to the moor. Moreover the moor is so broad in
some places that it would take a man two weeks to cross
it, in other places of such a breadth that a man can cross
it in six days. ...
112 THE WORKS OF KING ALFRED
Wulfstan's Voyage
Wulfstan said that he set out from Haddeby,^ arriving
at Truso after seven days and nights, the ship running all
the way under sail. He had Wendland [Mecklenburg
and Pomerania] on the starboard, and Langland, Laaland,
Falster, and Sconey on the larboard ; and all these lands
belong to Denmark. And then we ^ had on our larboard
the land of the Burgimdians [Bornholmians], who have
their own king. After the land of the Burgundians, we
had on our left those lands that were first called Blekinge,
and Meore,^ and Gland, and Gothland ; these lands belong
to the Swedes. And we had Wendland [the country of
tlie Wends] to the starboard all the way to the mouth of
the Vistula. The Vistula is a very large river, separating
Witland from AVendland ; and Witland belongs to the
Esthonians. The Vistula flows out of Wendland, and runs
into the Frische Haff. The Frische Haff is about fifteen
miles broad. Then the Elbing empties into the Frische
Haff, flowing from the east out of the lake [Drausen] on
the shore of which stands Truso ; and there empty together
into the Frische Haff, the Elbing from the east, flowing
out of Esthonia, and the Vistula from the south, out of
Wendland. The Vistula gives its name to the Elbing, run-
ning out of the mere [the Frische Haff] west and north
into the sea ; therefore it [the place where it flows out
of the Frische Haff] is called the mouth of the A^istula.
Esthonia [Eastland] is very large, and many towns are
there, and in every town there is a king. There is also
very much honey, and fishing. The king and the richest
men drink mare's milk, but the poor and the slaves drink
1 In Eastern Sohleswis;. 2 go the Old English.
3 The mainland of Sweden, opposite bland.
SELECTIONS FROM OROSIUS' HISTORY 113
mead. There is much strife among them. There is no ale
brewed by the Esthonians, but there is mead enough.
There is a custom among the Esthonians that when a
man dies he lies unburnt in his house, with his kindred
and friends, a month — sometimes two ; and the kings and
other men of high rank still longer, in proportion to their
wealth ; it is sometimes half a year that they remaiu un-
burnt, lying above ground, in their houses. All the wliile
that the body is within there is to be drinking and sports
until the day he is burned. The same day on which they
are to bear him to the pyre they divide his property, what
is left after the drinking and sports, into five or six parts —
sometimes into more, according to the amount of his goods.
Then they lay the largest share about a mile from the town,
then the second, then the third, till it is all laid within the
one mile ; and the smallest part must be nearest the town
in which the dead man lies. Then there are assembled all
the men in the land that have the swiftest horses, about
five or six miles from the goods. Then they all run toward
the goods, and the man who has the s^\iftest horse comes
to the first and largest portion, and so one after another till
it be all taken ; and he who arrives at the goods nearest
the town gets the smallest portion. Then each man goes
his way with the goods, and he may keep them all ; and for
this reason swift horses are excessively dear in that countiy.
When his property is thus all spent, they bear him out and
burn him with his w^eapons and clothes. Usually they spend
all his wealth, what with the long time that the corpse lies
within and what with the goods that they lay along the
roads, and that the strangers race for and carry off.
It is also a custom among the Esthonians to burn men
of every tribe, and if any one finds a bone unburned they
have to make great amends for it.
114 THE WORKS OP^ KING ALFRED
There is one tribe among the Esthonians that has the
power of producing cold, and it is because they produce
tliis cokl upon them that the corpses lie so long without
decaying. And if a man sets two vats full of ale or water,
they cause both to be frozen over, whether it be summer
or winter.
2. THE FOUR EMPIRES (2. 1)
The first empire was the Babylonian,' where Ninus
reigned. The second was the Grecian, where Alexander
reigned. The third was the African, where the Ptole-
mies reigned. The fourth is that of the Eomans, who are
yet reigning. These four chief empires are, by the in-
effable dispensation of God, in the four quarters of this
earth. The Babylonian was the first, in the east; the
second was the Grecian, in the north; the third was
the African, in the south ; the fourth is the Koman, in
the west.
3. OROSIUS' DEFENSE OF CHRISTIAN TIMES (2. 1)
I wish that they who inveigh against the era of our
Christianity realized what mercy there has been since
the coming of Christianity, and ere that how manifold
was the calamity of the world ; and also that they knew
how fittingly our God in former ages ordained the empires
and the kingdoms, the same who is now ordaining and
changing all empires and every kingdom, according as He
desireth. How similar were the beginnings that the two
cities had, and how similar their days were, both in good
and in evil ! But the ends of their empire were very dis-
similar, for the Babylonians and their king lived in man-
ifold sin and wantonness, without remorse of any kind, so
that they would not mend till God humbled them with
SELECTIONS FROM OROSIUS' HISTORY 115
the greatest ignominy, when He took from them both
king and dominion. But the Eomans, with their Chris-
tian king, served God, w^herefore He vouchsafed unto
them both king and dominion. The opponents of Chris-
tianity may moderate their speech, therefore, if they will
remember the uncleanness of their predecessors, and their
calamitous wars, and their manifold dissensions, and their
savagery toward God and toward one another, so that
they could bring no gentleness to pass until relief came to
them from that very Christianity which they now disparage
so greatly.
4. AUGUSTUS (5. 15; 6. 1)
Thereafter the whole world chose to accept the peace
and friendship of Augustus ; and to all men naught
seemed so good as to attain his favor and be subject unto
him. Hence no nation desired to keep its own laws, save
in the way Augustus bade them. Then were the gates of
Janus closed again, and his locks grew rusty as they had
never been before. In the same year when all this came
to pass — the two and fortieth year of Augustus' reign —
He was born who brought peace to all the world, our
Lord and Saviour Christ.^ . . . And thereafter Eome pros-
pered greatly for twelve years, as long as Augustus main-
tained that humble attitude toward God that he had at
the beginning — that is, in forbidding men to call him god,
as had none of the kings before him, who wished, rather,
that men should worship them and sacrifice to them.
Chauncey B. Tinker
1 Orosius is largely responsible for the currency of this view, which
is reflected in Milton's Ode on the Morning of Christ's Nativity 53 ff . :
No war, or battle's sound, etc.
116 THE WORKS OF KING ALFRED
SELECTIONS FROM BOETHIUS' CONSOLATION
OF PHILOSOPHY
Anicius Manlius Torquatus Severinus Boethius (ca. 475-524),
a Roman patrician and consul in the reign of Theodoric, was one
of the most noted men of the Middle Ages. Although in all prob-
ability only a nominal Christian, he became identified, in the
minds of mediaeval churchmen, with the opponents of the Arian
heresy, and was canonized in the eighth century. He translated
many of the works of Plato and Aristotle, and these, together
with his commentaries upon them, exercised a great influence
upon mediaeval philosophy, as well as upon his greatest work,
the famous Consolation of Pliilosopluj. This book, said to have
been written during his imprisonment by Theodoric, is preserved
in hundreds of manuscripts, and was regarded as the standard
handbook of philosophy until the Renaissance. Among its trans-
lators are, besides Alfred, Chaucer, Jean de Meun (one of the
authors of the Roman de la Rose), and Queen Elizabeth. It
was a favorite with Dante, being one of two works which he
read for consolation after the death of Beatrice ; it is often
quoted or mentioned in his prose (see Toynbee 's Z)an^e Dictionary,
Oxford, 1898). Dante places Boethius in the Heaven of the Sun
(Paradise 10. 121 ff.). Among other writers who have felt his
influence are Boccaccio, Gower, the Chaucerian imitators of the
fifteenth century, Scaliger, Sir Thomas More, and Spenser. The
Consolation was one of the first books printed.
King Alfred's version of the Consolation is one of his freest —
filled with explanatory remarks, translations from scholia, and
original thoughts. These are indicated in the text by italics.
The Christian coloring of the work is due in part to Alfred, and
in part to the effect of glosses upon the original text.
For the original Latin text, see Peiper's edition (Leipzig, 1871).
The standard edition of Alfred's version is Sedgefield's (Oxford,
1899) ; see also Sedgefield's introduction to his translation of the
same work (Oxford, 1900).
There are modern translations from the Latin by James
(London, 1897), Cooper (Temple Classics), and others. Stewart's
Boethius: an Essay (London, 1891) is a suggestive book.
SELECTIONS FROM BOETHIUS 117
1. ALFRED'S PREFACE
King Alfred was the translator of this work, and
turned it from the Latin of the books into English, as is
now done. Sometimes he put word for word, sometimes
meaning for meaning, as he could interpret most clearly
and intelligibly, on account of the sundry and manifold
worldly duties which often beset him both in mind and
in body. It is very hard for us to enumerate the cares
which in his day came upon the kingdoms he had ac-
quired ; but nevertheless he studied this book, and trans-
lated it from Latin into English, and turned it afterwards
into verse, as is now done. And now he prays and in
God's name beseeches every one who desires to read this
book to pray for him, and not to blame him if he under-
stands it better than he [Alfred] could ; because each man,
according to the measure of his understanding and accord-
ing to his leisure, must speak that which he speaks and
do that which he does.
2. ALFRED'S ACCOUNT OF BOETHIUS (1)
At the time when the Goths from the country of Scythia
waged war against the Roman Empire, with their kings
RacUtgaisus and Alaric, they seized the city of Rome, and
reduced to subjection all the kingdom of Italy tvhich lies
between the mountains and the island of Sicily. After the
aforesaid kings, Theodoric came to the throne. This Theod-
oric was an Amuling ^ ; he ivas a Christian, but persisted
in the Arian heresy. He rowed friendship to the Romans,
and that they shoidd remain in p)ossession of their former
rights ; but he kept that promise very poorly, and came to a
1 Of the royal race of the Aiuals,
118 THE WORKS OF KING ALFRED
grievous end hy a great crime ; this was that, in addition to
innumeraUe other ill deeds, he had Pope John put to death.
At that time there was a certain consul — 'heretogal as
we say — who was named Boethius ; he was exceeding wise
in knowledge of hooks and in the ways of the world. He
observed the manifold wrongs which King Theodoric was
committing against Christianity and against the Roman
senators. Then he recalled the favors and the ancient
rights ivhich they had had under the Ccesars, their former
lords ; and he began to meditate and to poiider within him-
self how he could take the kingdom from the itnrighteous
king, and hring it lender the control of orthodox and right-
eous men. Then he secretly sent letters to the emperor at
Constantinople, the chief city of the Greeks and their royal
seat, because the emperor was of the family of their former
lords. In these they besought him to help the7n to their
Christian faith and their former rights. ^When the cruel
King Theodoric learned this, he gave orders to cast him
into prison, and there keep hiin in ward. Now when it
came to pass that this excellent man fell into such dis-
tress, he was troubled in spirit by so nuich the more as
his mind had been the Trior e accustomed to worldly pros-
perity ; and in prison he took no thought of comfort, but
fell down prone upon the ground and prostrated himself
in anguish and despair, and began to bewail; and he
sang tMts.
3. OF TRUE RICHES (7)
' All true riches and true honor are mine own servants,
and wheresoever I am, they are with me. . . . My servants
are wisdom and skill and true riches. My delight was
always with these servants ; with them I encompass the
whole heaven, and I bring the lowest to the highest, and
SELEOTJONS FROM BOETHIUS 119
the highest to the lowest ; that is, I bring humihty to
heaven and heavenly grace to the humble. But when I
ascend loitli my servants, then we scorn this tempestuous
world, like as the eagle when in stormy weather he mounts
ahove the clouds, so that the tempest can not harm him!
4. THE GOLDEN AGE (15)
When Eeason had uttered this speech, he began to sing,
and spoke thus : ' Oh, how blessed was the former age of
this world,^ when to every man there seemed enough in
the fruits of the earth. There were no costly dwellings
nor diverse sweetmeats nor drinks, nor did they desire
rich garments, for as yet these things were not, nor were
they seen or heard of. They cared not for luxury, hut very
temperately followed nature. They always ate hut once in
the day, and that toward evening. They ate the fruit of
1 This passage is the chief source of Chaucer's poem, The Former Age,
of which the first stanza runs :
A blisful lyf, a paisible and a sweet
Ledden the peples in the former age ;
They helde hem payed of fruites that they ete,
Which that the feldes yave hem by usage ;
They ne Avere nat forpampred -with outrage ;
Unknowen Avas the quern and eek the melle ;
They eten mast, hawes, and swich pounage.
And dronken water of the colde welle.
Chaucer's prose version is: 'Blisful was the first age of men. They
helden hem apayed with the metes that the trewe feldes broughten forth.
They ne distroyede nor deceivede nat hemself with outrage. They weren
wont lightly to slaken hir hunger at even with acornes of okes. They ne
coude nat medly the yifte of Bachus to the cleer hony.'
These all repose upon the Latin lines :
Felix nimium prior aetas
Contenta fidehbus arvis.
Nee inerti perdita luxu,
Facili quse sera solebat
Jejunia solvere glande.
Non Bacchica munera norant
Liquido confundere melle.
120 TH. VV'-i:KS s iviN ALFRED
trees and plants ; the}- drank no unmixed wine, nor did
they know how to mingle any liquid with honey ; they
did not care for silken garments of diverse hues. They
always slept out in the shade of the trees ; they drank
the water of pure springs. No merchant had seen island
or coast, nor yet had any man heard of a fleet of shipSy
nor even speech about battle. The earth was not yet de-
filed with the blood of the murdered ; there was not even
a man wounded. Men of evil will were not yet seen ; they
had no honor, and no man loved them. Alas that our age
can not become such I But now man's greed is as flaming
as the fire in hell, which is in the mountain of ^tna, on
the island of Sicily. That mountain is ever burning ivith
brimstone ; it consumes all the places round about. Alas,
what that first miser was who began to delve in the earth
for gold and gems, and found the perilous treasure which
before was hidden and covered by the earth ! '
5. OF WORLDLY POWER (16)
When Wisdom had sung this song, he began again to
speak, and said thus : ' What more can I say of the honor
and power of this world ? For power ye would exalt
yourselves to heaven, if ye could. Tha.t is because ye re-
member not nor understand the heavenly power and honor ;
it is your own, and thence ye came. Lo, now, if your riches
and your power, which indeed ye call honor, came to the
worst of men, and to him who is of all most unworthy (as
recently it did to this same Theodoric, and formerly to the
Emperor Nero, and often also to many like them), will he
not do as they did and still do, — destroy and lay waste all
the regions which are subject to him or anywhere near, just
as the fiery fla^ne does the dry field of heath, or again as
SELECTIONS FROM BOETHIUS 121
the hurning brimstone consumes the mount vjhich we call
j^tna, which is in the island of Sicily , or like unto the great
flood which was of yore in the days of Noah ? I think
that thou may St recall that of old, in the days of Taj^q^uin,
your forefathers, the Eoman senators, first banished the
royal title from the city of Eome because of the pride of
that haughty king. And again, likewise on account of their
pride, they would have driven out the consuls who previ-
ously had banished him (but they could not) ; because the
later jpower of the consuls pleased the Roman senators still
less than the former power of the kings. If, then, it ever
happens, as it very seldom does, that power and honor
come to a good and wise man, what is there estimable
except the goodness and honor of the good king himself,
and not at all of the powder ? Because power is never
good unless he is good who has it ; therefore it is the
good of the man, not of the power, if power is good.
Hence it is that no one by reason of his authority attains
to virtue and excellence, but by reason of his virtue and
excellence attains to authority ccnd power. JVo man is
better for his potver, but because of his virtue he is good, if
he is good, and because of his virtue he is worthy of power,
if he is worthy of it. Learn therefore ivisdom, and when
ye have learned, do not despise it. For verily I say unto
you that ye may thereby attain to power, though ye do not
desire it. Ye have no need to be anxious for power, nor to
press toward it. If ye are vnse and good, it will follow
you, though ye do not desire it' ^
iCf. Lowell, i/efte 25-28:
Coy Hebe flies from those that woo,
And shuns the hands would seize upon her ;
Follow thy life, and she will sue
To pour for thee the cup of honor.
1'2'2 THE WORKS OF KING ALFRED
G. A KINGS IDEAL (17)
When Wisdom had sung this song, he was silent, and
the ^lind answered and spoke thus : ' Behold, Eeason, thou
knowest that covetousness and the glory of earthly power
were never pleasing to me, nor did I at all desire this
earthly authority ; but I wished tools and material for the
work' whieh was enjoined on me to do; that was, rirtu-
ousli/ and fittingly to wield and e.vereise the power which
was entrusted to me. Now thou knowest that no om' can
manifest any skill nor e.vereise or wield any power without
tools and material; that is, the material of each craft
without which it can not be exercised. The material of the
king, and the tools with which to ride, are a well-peopled
land ; he ought to hare men for prayer, men for war, and
men for labor. Lo. thou knowest that without these tools no
king can manifest his skill. This also is his material —
to hare, in addition to these fools, p?vrisio)i for these three
classes. Xow their provisio/i is tliis : land to dwell i)i, and
gifts and weapons and 7neat and ale and raiment, and
whatsoerer these three classes require. Without these he
can not preserve his tools, nor without his tools do any of
those things which are enjoined on him to do. Therefore I
desired material with which to exercise power, that my
skill and power should not be forgotten and lost sight
of. For every kind of skill and power quickly grows old,
and is passed over in silence, if it is devoid of wisdom ;
because no one can manifest any skill without wisdom,
since whatsoever is done foolishly can never be accounted
as skill. Now to speak most briefly, this it is that I have
desired — to live worthily wh He I lived, and after my life
to leave to the men who should follow )ne my memory in
good deeds.'
SELfXTIOXS FROM BOETIIIUS 123
7. THE EMPTINESS OF FAME (10)
When Wisdom had uttered this speech, he began to
chant, and sang thus :
' Whosoever wishes to liave false fame and vain glory, let
?dm behold on the four sides of him how spacious is the
vault of heaven, and how narrow is the space of earth,
though to us it seems wide. Then he may be ashamed
of the extent of his fame, since he can not even spread
it over this narrow earth. Ah ye proud, why do ye desire
to l)ear this deadly yoke upon your necks? Or why do
ye labor so vainly to extend your fame among many
peoples ? Though indeed it should come to pass that
the uttermost peoples extol your name and praise you in
many tongues, and though a man wax great because of
the nobility of his birth, and prosper in all riches and all
glory, yet death cares not for such things, but despises
the noljle, and devours the rich and the poor alike, and
brings them to one level. Where are now the bones of the
famous and unse goldsmith, Waylaiul ? I said " the vjise"
for this reason, hecatise the skilful can never lose his skill,
nor can it he taken from him more easily than the sun can
he removed from its station. Where novj are the hones of
Wayland, or vjho knovjs novj where they vjere ? Or where
novj is the famous and sagacious Roman consul, vjho was
called Brutus, hy another name Cassias ? Or the wise and
steadfast Cato, who vjas also a Roman consul ? He vjas
recognized as a philosopher. Have 7iot these long vanished?
and no man knows where they now are. AVhat is now left
of them except a little fame, and a name written with few
letters ? And yet worse, we know many famous men de-
j)arted, worthy to be remembered, of whom very few have
any knowledge. But many lie dead, entirely forgotten, so
124 THE WORKS OF KING ALFRED
that not even fame makes them known. Though ye think
and desire to live long here in this world, in what shall
it be better for you ? Does not death still come, though
he come late, and take you from this world ? And what
avail then will glory be to you, at least to those whom
the second death ^ will seize and hold for ever?
8. THE UNSPEAKABLE POWER OF GOD (33)
0 Lord, how great and how wonderful Thou art. Thou
who didst marvelously fashion all Thy creatures, visible
and invisible, and by reason dost govern them ; Thou who
didst estabhsh the seasons in order from the beginning of
the world unto the end, so that they go forth and return
again ; Thou vjlio governest all moving things according to
Thy will, and Thyself ahidest ever at rest and unchange-
able ! For there is none mightier than Thou, nor none Thine
equal ; nor did any necessity teach Thee to make that which
Thou madest, hut hy Thine own will and hy Thine own
power Thou madest all things, although Thou hadst need
of none. Very wonderful is the nature of Thy goodness,
because all are one, Thou and Thy goodness; good came
not from ivithout to Thee, btit it is Thine own. But all
that we have of good in this world comes to us from with-
out, that is from Thee. Thou hast no envy of anything^
because there is none more skilfid than Thou, nor no7ie
Thine equal ; for by Thine own thought Thou didst con-
ceive and create all good. No man set Thee an example,
for there was none before Thee who made or unmade.
But Thou madest all things very good and very fair, and
Thou Thyself art the supreme good and the fairest. As
Thou Thyself didst conceive. Thou didst create this world ;
1 Cf. Rev. 20. 14.
SELECTIONS FROM BOETIIIUS 125
and Thou rules t it as Thou wilt, and distributest all good
as Thou wilt. Aiid Thou didst fashion all creatures like
one another, and also in some things unlike. Though Thou
hast called all creatures hy one naine, naining them together
and calli7ig them the world, yet that one name Thou didst
divide among four elements; one of these is earth, the second
water, the third air, the fourth fire. To each of these Thou
appointedst its own separate place, and yet each is named
with the other, and united in harmony hy Thy command,
so that none overstepped the hound of the other, and cold
endured heat, and wet dry. The nature of earth and of
water is cold ; the earth is dry and cold, and the water wet
and cold. The air is defined as cold and wet and warin.
This is not strange, as it is made in the middle hetween
the dry, cold earth and the hot fire. The fire is uppermost
ahove all these earthly elements. Wonderful is Thy thought
that Thou hast accomplished hoth — hast distinguished the
elements among themselves and hast also mingled them;
the dry, cold earth under the cold, wet water, so that the
yielding and flowing water has a floor on the steadfast
earth, since it can not stand alone. But the earth holds it,
and in part consumes it, and hy that draught is 7noistened,
so that it grows and hlossoins and brings forth fruit ; he-
cause if the water did not moisten it, it would wither and
he scattered hy the wind like dust or ashes. No one living
could enjoy the earth or the water, nor dwell in either on
account of cold, if Thou didst not mingle thein somevjhat
with fire. With wonderful skill Thou hast contrived that
fire does not destroy water and earth, since it is mingled
with hoth; nor, on the other hand, do ivater and earth
entirely quench the fire. The water's own place is on the
earth, and also in the air, and again ahove the sky.^ But
1 Cf. Gen. 1. 7.
126 THE WORKS OF KING ALFRED
the fire's own habitation is above all visible elements of the
world, and yet it is mingled with all ; nevertheless, it can
not entirely overcome any of these, because it has not leave
from the Almighty. The earth indeed is heavier and denser
than the other elements, because it is lower than any other
except the sky ; for the sky is always outside, yet it nowhere
approaches it ; at every place it is equally near, both above
and below. Each of these elements which we mentioned before
has its own place apart, and yet each is mingled ivith the
other, since none can exist ivithout the other, though not
discernible in it, just as earth and wetter are very diffi-
cult for foolish men to see or discover in fire, and yet they
are mingled with it. So also there is fire in stones and in
water, very hard to perceive, but yet it is there. Thou didst
hind the fire with most indissoluble chains, so that it can
not come to its own place, that is, to that greatest fire that
is above us, lest it forsake the earth; and all other elements
would perish because of the excessive cold, if it entirely de-
parted. Thou didst establish the earth very wonderfully
and firmly, so that it does not hold to one side, nor does it
stand on any earthly thing, nor does anything on the earth
keep it from sinking, and yet it is no easier for it to fall
down than upt.
9. THE TALE OF ORPHEUS AND EURYDICE (35)
Once upon a time it happened that there was a harper
in the country called Thrace, in the kingdom of the Greeks.
This harper, whose name was Orpheus, was extraordinarily
good ; he had a wife without peer, named Eurydice. It be-
gan to be said of the harper that he could play so that the
woods moved and the stones stirred because of the sweet
sound, and wild animals would run to the place and stand
SELECTIONS FROM BOETHIUS 127
as if they were tame, so still that they feared not though
men or dogs came out against them. The harper's ivife
died, they said, and her soul was taken to hell. Then the
harper became so sorrowful that he could not remain among
other men, hut betook himself to the woods, and sat on the
hills both day and night, wept, and played his harp, so
that the woods trembled and the rivers stood still, and the
hart did not shun the Kon nor the hare the hound, nor
did any beast feel rage or fear toward any other, for joy
of the sound. When it seemed to the harper that he had
no pleasure in tliis world, he thought that he woidd seek
out the gods of hell and attempt to propitiate them with
his harp, and pray them to give him back his wife. When
he arrived at that place, they say, the dog of hell came
toward him, ivhose name %vas Cerberus; he was said to
have three heads; and. he began to loag his tail and to
play with him on account of his ha.rping. There was also
a very terrible gate-keeper vjhose naine was said to be
Charon; he also had three heads, and was very old. The
harper began to beg him to protect him while lie vms there,
and to bring him out again safely. He agreed^ to do this,
because he was delighted vjith the rare sound. Then he ad-
vanced until he met the fieree goddesses ivhom common
people call Parcce, vjho are said to have respect for no man,
but punish every one according to his deeds, and are said
to control every man's destiny. Forthivith he began to beg
their favor, and they in turn to weep with him. Again he
went on, and all the people of hell ran toward him and led
him to their king, and all began to speak and. to beg for that
which he implored. And the restless wheel to which Ixion,
the king of the Lapithoe, was bound for his guilt, stood
still because of the harping. King Tantalus also was quiet,
who in this world was exceeding greedy, and vjhom the same
128 THE WORKS OF KING ALFRED
sin of greed followed there. And they say, the vulture ceased
to tear the liver of ICing Tityus, whom before he punished
in that way. And all the torments of the people of hell
stopped while he harped hefore the king. When he had
played a long, long time, the kmg of hell spoke and said :
Let us give his wife to this man, for he has won her by
his harping. Then he bade him to be sure not to look
beliind him after he was gone thence ; and he said that
if he did look behind he should lose his wife. But love can
be restramed with great difficulty or not at all. Alas and
alack ! Orpheus took his wife with him until he came to
the boundary of light and darkness. And liis wife followed
him. But when he was come forth into the light, he looked
back toward his wife ; and immediately she was lost to him.
10. A JOURNEY THROUGH THE HEAVENS (36)
When Wisdom had uttered this speech, he began to sing,
and said : ' I have wings so swift that I can fly above the
high roof of heaven. But if only I could give wings to
thy mind so that thou couldst fly with me, then mightest
thou survey all earthly things. If thou wert able to fly
above the sky, thou couldst see the clouds beneath thee, and
fly above the fire which is between the sky and the air ;
and thou couldst journey with the sun among the planets,
and then come to the firmament, and at last to that cold
star which we call the star of Saturn. It is all of ice; it
wanders above the other stars, higher than any other. When
thou art carried beyond that, then thou wilt be above the
moving sky, and wilt leave behind the highest heaven.
After that thou canst have thy portion of the true light.
There reigns one king; He has dominion over all other
kings; He directs the bridle and the rein of the whole
SELECTIONS FROM BOETHIUS 129
circuit of heaven and earth ; He alone is judge, steadfast
and glorious ; He guides the swift chariot of all creation.
But if ever thou comest along that way, and to the place
which now thou hast forgotten, thou wilt say : " This is
my true home; from this I first came, and here I was
born ; here will I now remain ; never will I go hence."
Yet I know if ever it happens that thou wilt or must
again explore the darkness of this world, thou w^ilt see
that unrighteous kings and all the haughty rich are very
powerless and very poor wretches, even those very ones
whom this unfortunate people now fears most sorely.'
11. THE EXAMPLE OF THE FAMOUS MEN OF YORE (40)
Hearken, ye wise men, hearken ! Walk ye all in the
way which ye are taught by the illustrious examples of
good men and ambitious ones who were before you. Ah,
ye lazy and slothful, why are ye so unprofitable and indo-
lent ? Wliy vnll ye not inquire after the wise men and the
ambitions, what they were who came before yon ? And
when ye have learned their ways, ivhy will ye not folloio
them as ye best may ? For they strove after honor in this
world, and labored for good report with good deeds, and
set a good example for those who came after. Therefore
because of their good deeds they dwell now above the
stars in joy everlasting.
12. THE NATURE OF THE DEITY (42)
Therefore we should with all our might inquire after
God, that we may know wiiat He is. Although it may not
be in our power to know what He is, yet we ought to
attempt it, according to the measure of understanding
wliich He gives us. . . . That alone is certainly inesent to
130 THE WORKS OF KING ALFRED
us tvhich exists at this time ; hut to Him all is present — that
which ivas hcfore, and that tvhich noiv is, and that which
shall be hereafter ; all is present to Him. His abundance
does not wax, nor on the other hand does it ever wane. He
never recollects, for He has never forgotten. He seeks noth-
ing nor inquires, for He knows all. He seeks nothing, for
He has lost nothing. He folloivs after no creature, for
none can 'fly from Him ; nor does He fear anything,
for there Is none more powerful, nor even any equal. He
is ever giving, and in nothing grotvs less. ' He is ever
almighty, for He always wills the good and never any evil.
He has need of nothiiig. He is ever watching, and never
sleeps. He is ever eqtially gracious. He is ever eternal, for
there ivas never a time when He was not, nor will there ever
he. He is ever free, nor is He constrained to any work.
By His divine power He is everyivhere p)resent. His great-
ness no man can measure ; yet this is not to he understood
corporally, hut spiritually, like wisdom and righteousness,
which He Himself is. But why are ye then proud, or why
do ye exalt yourselves against such lofty power / Ye can
do notight against Him, for the Eternal and the Almighty
sits ever on the throne of His power. Thence He can see
all, and He requites each with perfect justice, according
to his deeds.i Therefore it is not in vain that we hope in
God, for He changes not as we do. But pray to Him
humbly, for He is very gracious and merciful. Lift up
your hearts to Him with your hands, and pray for that
which is right and needful, for He will not refuse you.
Hate evil, and flee from it as ye best may ; love virtue, and
follow after it. Ye have great need always to do well, for
all that ye do is done before the eternal and almighty God ;
He sees it all, and He requites all.
1 A parallel is Rom. 2. 6.
SELECTIONS FROM ST. AUGUSTINE 131
13. ALFRED'S CONCLUDING PRAYER i
0 Lord, Almighty God, Creator and Ruler of all things,
I beseech Thee hy Thy great mercy, and ly the sign of
Thy holy cross, and hy the virginity of Saint Mary, and
hy the ohedience of Saint Michael, and hy the love of all
Thy holy scmits, and hy their merits, that Thou wilt guide
me hetter than I have deserved from Thee ; direct me ac-
cording to Thy tvill, and according to my soid's need,
hetter than I myself can ; estahlish my mind according to
Thy will, and according to my souVs need; strengthen
me agccinst the temptations of the devil, put far from me
fold lust and all unrighteousness, and shield me from mine
enemies, seen and imseen ; and teach me to do Thy laill,
that I may inwardly love Thee above all things tvith «,
pure mind and a pure body ; for Thou art my Creator
and my Redeemer, my Help, my Comfort, my Trust, and
my Hope, To Thee be p^raise and glory now and for ever,
world without end. Amen.
Elizabeth Deering Hanscom
SELECTIONS FEOM ST. AUGUSTINE'S
SOLILOQUIES
The first two books of this work are based upon the unfinished
Soliloquies of St. Augustine (354-430), perhaps the greatest of
the Latin Fathers, author of the Confessions and of The City of God
(not to be confused with ' the Apostle of the Anglo-Saxons,' for
whom see pp. 17-22).
This, the latest of Alfred's translations, is also the freest. Book
3 (here given entire) being well-nigh original. It is, however,
1 There is some doubt as to the relation of this prayer to what precedes.
It is ' written in a hand resembling that of the main text ' (Sedgetield's
ed., p. xv).
132 THE WORKS OF KING ALFRED
based upon various passages in other works of St. Augustine,
such as the De Videndo Deo. as well as upon parts of Gregory's
Dialogues and Jerome's Vulgate. Alfred calls the passages trans-
lated from the Soliloquies *■ flowers ' or ' blossoms.'
Some doubt has been cast upon the Alfredian authorship of this
translation, owing to the late and corrupt dialect of the unique
MS. in which it has been preserved ; however, the vocabulary and
general method of rendering — not to mention its ascription to
King Alfred by William of Malmesbury in the twelfth century —
seem sufficient reasons for accepting it as a genuine production of
the king's. Particularly striking is its similarity to the Boethius.
The standard edition of the work is Hargrove's (New York,
1902) ; his complete translation (New York, 1904) may also be
consulted.
1. ALFRED'S PREFACE
I then gathered for myself staves, and stud-shafts, and
cross-beams, and helves for each of the tools that I could
work with; and bow-timbers and bolt-timbers for every
work that I could perform — as many as I could carry of
the comeliest trees. Nor came I home with a burden, for
it pleased me not to bring all the wood home, even if I
could bear it. In each tree I saw something that I needed
at home ; therefore I exhort every one who is able, and has
many wains, to direct his steps to the selfsame wood
where I cut the stud-shafts. Let him there obtain more for
himself, and load liis wains with fair twigs, so that he may
wind many a neat wall, and erect many a rare house, and
build a fair enclosure, and therein dwell in joy and comfort
both winter and summer, in such manner as I have not yet
done. But He who taught me, and to whom the wood was
pleasing, hath power to make me dwell more comfortably
both in this transitory cottage by the road while I am on
this world-pilgrimage, and also in the everlasting home
which He hath promised us through Saint Augustine and
SELECTIONS FROM ST. AUGUSTINE 133
Saint Gregory and Saint Jerome, and through many other
holy Fathers ; as I believe also for the merits of all those
He will both make this way more convenient than it hith-
erto was, and especially will enlighten the eyes of my mind
so that I may search out the right way to the eternal home,
and to everlasting glory, and to eternal rest, which is prom-
ised us through those holy Fathers. So may it be.
It is no wonder that one should labor in timber-work,
both in the gathering and also in the building; but every
man desireth that, after he hath built a cottage on his lord's
lease and by his help, he may sometimes rest himself there-
in, and go hunting, fowling, and fishing ; and use it in
every manner according to the lease, both on sea and land,
until such time as he shall gain the fee simple of the
eternal heritage through his lord's mercy. So may the rich
Giver do, who ruleth both these temporary cottages and
the homes everlasting. May He who created both and
ruleth both grant me to be fit for each — both here to
be useful and thither to attain.
Augustine, bishop of Carthage, made two books about
his own mind. These books are called Soliloquies, that is,
concerning the meditation and doubts of his mind — how
his Eeason answered his mind when the mind doubted
about anything, or wished to know anything that it could
not before clearly understand.
2. A PORTION OF BOOK 2
Reason. But I would we began again where we were
before. Now thou knowest that thou art, and that thou
livest, and that thou knowest something, albeit not so
much as thou wouldst ; and a fourth thing thou wouldst
also know, to wit, whether the three things all be eternal
134 THE WORKS OF KING ALFRED
or not, or whether any of them be eternal ; or, if they are
all eternal, whether any of them after this world in the
eternal life shall either become worse or wane.
Augustine. All my yearning hast thou understood
very well.
R. About what doubtest thou now ? Didst thou not
before confess that God is eternal and almighty, and hath
created two rational and eternal creatures, as we before said,
namely, angels and men's souls, to which He hath given
eternal gifts ? These gifts they need never lose. If thou
now rememberest this and behevest this, then knowest thou
beyond doubt that thou art, and always wilt be, and always
wilt love, and always wilt know something, albeit thou
mayest not know all that thou wouldst. Now thou knowest
about those three things that thou askedst about, namely :
(1) Whether thou art immortal ; (2) Whether thou shalt
know something throughout eternity; (3) Whether thou,
after the parting of the body and the soul, shalt know
more than thou now knowest, or less. After the fourth we
shall still seek — now that thou knowest the three — until
thou also know that.
A. Very orderly thou dost explain it, but I will yet
say to thee what I firmly believe, and about what I yet
doubt. I do not doubt at all about God's immortality and
about His omnipotence, for it can not be else respecting
the trinity and the unity which was without beginning
and is without end. Therefore I can not otherwise believe,
for He hath created so great and so many and so wonder-
ful visible creatures ; and He ruleth them all and directeth
them all, and at one time adorneth them with the most
winsome appearances, while at another time He taketh
away their adornments and beauties. He ruleth the kings
who have the most power on this earth — who like all men
SELECTIONS FROM ST. AUGUSTIXE 135
are born, and also perish like other men. Then He letteth
them rule while He willeth. For such and for many such
things I do not know how I can doubt His eternity ; and
also about the life of our souls I do not now doubt any
more. But I doubt yet about the eternity of souls, whether
they are immortal.
B. About what dost thou doubt ? Are not all the holy
books well-nigh full of the immortality of the soul ? But
metlimks that too long to enumerate now in full, and too
long for thee to hear.
A. I have heard a good deal of it, and I also beheve it ;
but I desire rather to know it than to believe it.
R. I wonder why thou yearnest to know so very much
and so certainly what no man in the prison of this present
life ever so certainly could know as thou wishest, although
many yearn to understand it more clearly in this present
life than many others believe it from the sayings of these
and truthful men. No one can ever understand all that
he would, till the soul be parted from the body ; nor mdeed
before Doomsday so clearly as he w^ould. And yet the
holy Fathers that were before us knew very truly about
that which thou before didst ask, to wit, about the immor-
tality of men's souls, which was so clear to them that they
had no doubt, since they despised this present life ^ . . .
they would be parted ; and just as they endured the
greatest torments in tliis world, so they would afterward
have the greater reward in the eternal life. Through the
sayings of such men we should infer that we can not
understand it as clearly as they could ; howbeit as regards
the immortahty of the soul, if thou dost not yet assent to
it, I will make thee to understand it, and I will also cause
thee to be ashamed that tliou understoodest it so slowly.
1 A break in the MS.
136 THE WORKS OF KING ALFRED
A. Even so do ! Cause me to be ashamed therefor.
B. Behold, I know that thou hast to-day the lord whom
thou trustest in all things better than thyself ; and so also
hath many a servant who hath a less powerful lord than
thou hast ; and I know that thou hast also many friends
whom thou trustest well enough, though thou dost not
trust them altogether so well as thou dost thy lord. How
seemeth it to thee now, if thy lord should, tell thee some
news which thou never before heardest, or if he should say
to thee that he saw something which thou never sawest ?
Doth it seem to thee that thou wouldst doubt his statement
at all, because thou didst not see it thyself ?
A. Nay, nay, verily ; there is no story so incredible that
I would not believe it, if he should tell it. Yea, I even
have many companions, whom, if they should say that they
themselves saw or heard it, I would believe just as well as
if I myself saw or heard it.
B. I hear now that thou believest thy lord better than
thyself, and thy companions quite as well as thyself. Thou
dost very rightly and very reasonably, in that thou hast
such good faith in them. But I would that thou shouldst
tell me whether Honorius, the son of Theodosius, seem
to thee wiser or more truthful than Christ, the Son
of God.
A. Nay, verily nay ; nowhere near ! But methinks that
it is difficult for thee to compare them together. Honorius
is very good, although his father was better ; the latter was
very devout and very prudent and very rightly of my lord's
kin ; and so is he who still liveth there. I will honor them
just as a man should a worldly lord, and the others of
whom thou didst formerly speak just as their masters, and
as one should the king who is the King of all kings, and
the Creator and Ruler of all creatures.
SELECTIONS FROM ST. AUGUSTINE 137
B. Now I hear that the Almighty God pleaseth thee
better than Theodosius ; and Christ, the Son of God, better
than Honorius, the son of Theodosius. I blame thee not
that thou lovest both, but I advise thee to love the higher
lords more, for they know all that they wish and can per-
form all that they wish.
A. All that thou sayest is true. I believe it all.
B. Now I hear that thou trustest the liigher lord better.
But I would know whether it seem to thee that thy
worldly lords have wdser and truer servants than the
liigher lords have. Trustest thou now thyself and thy
companions better than thou dost the apostles, who were
the servants of Christ Himself ? Or the patriarchs ? Or
the prophets, through whom God Himself spake to His
people what He would ?
A. Nay, nay ; I trust not ourselves so well, nor any-
where near, as I do them.
B. Wliat spake God then more often, or what said He
more truly through His prophets to His people than about
the immortality of souls ? Or what spake the apostles and
all the holy Fathers more truly than about the eternity
of souls and about their immortahty ? Or what meant
Christ, when He said in His gospel : ' The unrighteous
shall go into eternal torments, and the righteous into
life eternal'^? Now thou hearest what said Christ and
His Apostles ; and I heard before that thou didst doubt
nothing of the word of Honorius and his servants. Wliy
doubtest thou, then, about the words of Christ, the Son of
God, and those of the apostles, which they themselves
uttered ? They spake to us more of such-like words than
we can count, and with many examples and proofs they
explained it to us. AVhy canst thou, then, not beheve
1 Matt. 25. 46.
138 THE WORKS OF KTXG ALFRED
them all, and why saidst thou before that thou wert
then- man ?
A. So I say stiU, and say that I belieye them, and also
know exactly that it is all true that God either through
Himself or through them said ; for there are more of these
occurrences m the holy books than I can eyer coimt.
Therefore I am now ashamed that I eyer doubted about
it, and I confess that I am rightly conyinced, and I shall
always be much happier when thou dost convince me of
such things than I eyer was when I convinced another
man. All this I knew, however, before ; but I forgot it,
as I fear also that I shall this. I know also that I had so
clean forgotten it tliat I should never have remembered it
again if thou hadst not cited me clearer examples, both
about my lord and about many parables.
B. I wonder why thou couldst ever suppose that men's
souls were not eternal, for thou clearly enougli knewest
that they are the highest and the most blessed of the
creatures of God; and thou knowest also clearly enough
that He alloweth no creature entirely to pass away so that
it Cometh to nauglit — not even the most unworthy of alL
But He beautitieth and adorneth all creatures, and again
taketh away their beauty and adornments, and yet again
reneweth them. They all so change, however, that they
pass away, and suddenly come again and return to the
same beauty and the same winsomeness for the children
of men, in which they were before Adam siimed. Now
thou canst perceive that no creature so fully passeth away
that it Cometh not again, nor so fully perisheth that it
doth not become somethmg. Now that the weakest
creatures do not pass away- entirely, wliy then supposest
thou that the most blessed creature should entirely
depart ?
SELECTIOXS FROM ST. AUGUSTINE 139
A. Alas ! I am beset with wretched forgetfulness, so
that I can not remember it as well as before. Methinks
now that thou hadst explained it to me clearly enough by
this one example, though thou hadst said nothing more.
R. Seek now in thyself the examples and the signs, and
thou canst know well what thou before wouldst know,
and what I explained to thee by concrete examples. Ask
thine own mind why it is so desirous and so zealous to
know w^hat was formerly, before thou wert bom, or ever
thy grandfather was born ; and ask it also why it knoweth
what is now present and what it seeth and heareth every^
day ; or why it wisheth to know what shall be hereafter.
Then I supjjose it will answer thee, if it is discreet, and say
that it desireth to know what was before us, for the reason
that it always existed since the time that God created
the first man ; and therefore aspireth to what it formerly
was, to know what it formerly knew, although it is now so
heavily weighed with the burden of the body that it can
not know what it formerly knew. And I suppose that it
will say to thee that it knoweth what it here seeth and
heareth, because it is here in this world ; and I suppose also
that it will say that it wisheth to know what shall hajj^jen
after our days, because it knoweth that it shall ever be.
A. Methinks now that thou hast clearly enough said
that every man's soul ever is, and ever shall be, and ever
was since God first made the first man.
R. There is no doubt that souls are immortal. Believe
thine own reason, and believe Christ, the Son of God, and
believe all His sayings, because they are very reliable
witnesses ; and believe thine own soul, which always saith
to thee through its reason that it is in thee ; it saith also
that it is eternal, because it \\isheth eternal things. It is
not so fooHsh a creature as to seek that which it can not
140 THE WORKS OF KING ALFRED
find, nor wish for that which doth not belong to it. Give
over now thy foolish doubting. Clear enough it is that
thou art eternal and shalt ever exist.
A. That I hear and that I believe and clearly know,
and I am rejoiced as I never was at anything. I^ow I
hear that my soul is eternal and ever liveth, and that the
mmd shall ever hold all that my mind and my reason
gathered of good virtues. And I hear also that my intellect
is eternal. But I wish yet to know what I before asked
about the intellect : whether it shall, after the parting of
the body and the soul, wax or wane, or shall stand still in
one place, or do as it before did in this world — for a time
wax, then for a time wane. I know now that life and
reason are eternal, albeit I fear that it shall be in that
world as it is here in children. I do not suppose that the
life there shall be without reason, any more than it is here
in children ; in that case there would be too little winsome-
ness in that hfe.
B. I hear now what thou wouldst know, but I can not
tell thee in a few words. If thou wilt know it clearly,
then shalt thou seek it in the book which we call Be
Videndo Deo. In English the book is called Of Seeing
God. But be now of good cheer, and think over wdiat
thou hast now learned, and let us both pray that He may
help us, for He promised that He would aid every one
who called on Him and rightly wished it ; and He prom-
ised without any doubt that He would teach us after this
world that we might very certainly know perfect wisdom
and full truthfulness, which thou may est hear about more
clearly in the book which I have before named to thee —
De Videndo Deo.
Here endeth the anthology of the second book which
we call Soliloquies.
SELECTIONS FKOM ST. AUGUSTIXE 141
3. BOOK 3
Then said I : Now tliou liast ended the sayings which
thou hast selected from these two books, yet hast not
answered me about what I last asked thee, to wit, about
my intellect. I asked thee whether, after the parting of
body and soul, it would wax or wane, or whether it would
do both as it before did.
B. Did I not say to thee before that thou must seek it
in the book which we then spake of ? Learn that book,
then thou wilt find it there.
A. I do not care now to study all that book ; but I
would that thou tell me that ^ . . . the glory of the good,
that their own torment may seem the more to them,
because they would not by their Father's advice merit
the same honors while they were in this world. And the
good see also the torments of the wicked, in order that
their own glory may seem the more. The wicked see God,
as the guilty man who is condemned before some king ;
when he seetli him and his own dear ones, then seemeth
to him his punishment the gi-eater. And so also the dear
ones of the king see their punishment, so that their honors
always may seem to them the greater. No man ought to
suppose that all those that are in hell have like torments,
nor that all those that are in heaven have like glory ; but
every one hath according to his merits, punishment as
well as glory, whichever he is in. The like have their
like. Moreover, it is not to be supposed that all men have
hke wisdom in heaven ; for every one hath it in the
measure which he here merited. As he toileth better here,
and better yearneth after wisdom and righteousness, so
hath he more of it there ; likewise more honor and more
1 A break in the MS.
142 THE AVORKS OF KING ALFRED
glory. Hath it now been clearly enough explained about
wisdom and about the vision of God ?
A. Yea ; truly enough I believe that w^e need not lose
aught of the wisdom which we now have, although the
soul and the body part. But I beheve that our intellect
shall thereby be very much increased, though we can not
all know before Doomsday what we would know. Howbeit,
I believe that after Doomsday naught will be hidden from
us, neither of that which is in our days, nor of that which
was before us, nor of that which shall come after us. Thou
hast now related to me many examples, and I myself have
seen in the writings of the sacred books more than I can
reckon, or can even remember. Thou didst show me also
such reliable testimony that I can do nothing else but
believe it; for if I believe not weaker testimony, then
know I very Httle or naught. What know I except that
I wish we knew about God as clearly as we would ? But
the soul is weighed down and busied with the body so
that we can not, with the eyes of the mind, see anything
just as it is, any more than thou canst see at times the
sun shine, when the clouds shoot between it and thee,
although it shineth very brightly where it is. And even,
though there be no cloud between thee and it, thou canst
not see it clearly just as it is, because thou art not where
it is, nor can thy body be there ; nor can thy bodily eyes
come any nearer there, nor even see that far. Not even
the moon, which is nearer us, can we see just as it is. We
know that it is larger than the earth, and yet it doth not
seem at times larger than a shield on account of the
distance. Now thou hast heard that we can not with the
eyes of the mind ever see any thing of this world just as
it is ; yet from the part of it which we see we must beheve
the part which we do not see. But it is promised us
SELECTIONS FROM ST. AUGUSTINE 143
beyond any doubt that, as soon as we come out of this
world, and the soul is released from the prison of the body,
we shall know everything which we now desire to know,
and much more than the ancients, the wisest of all on the
earth, could know. And after Doomsday it is promised
that we may see God openly — yea, see Him ju^t as He
is,^ and know Him ever afterwards as perfectly as He now
knoweth us. There shall never be any wisdom wanting to
us. He who granteth us to know Himself will conceal
naught from us. Howbeit, we shall know then all that we
now wish to know, and also that which we do not now
wish to know. We shall all see God, both those who here
are worst, and those who here are best. All the good shall
see Him, to their comfort, and joy, and honor, and hap-
piness, and glory; and the wicked shall see Him just
the same as the good, though to their torment, for they
shall see 2 . . . might or could in this world, or whether
they had any remembrance of the friends whom they left
behind in this world.
Then answered he his own thoughts, and said : Wliy
supposest thou that the departed good who have full and
complete freedom shall know what they wish to know,
either in this present life or in that to come ? Why sup-
posest thou that they have no memory of their friends in
this world, inasmuch as the wicked Dives feared the same
torments for his friends in hell as he had merited ? It
was he whom Christ spake of in His gospel ^ that besought
Abraham to send Lazarus the beggar to him that he, with
his little finger, might place a drop of water on his tongue
and therewith cool his thirst. Then said Abraham : ' Nay,
my son ; but consider that thou didst withhold from him
all comforts when ye were both m the bodv, thou having
ilJohnS. 2. 2 Omission in the MS. 3 Lk. 16. 24 ff.
144 THE WORKS OF KING ALFRED
every good, and he every misfortune. He can not now do
more for thy comfort than thou woukist then do for liim.'
Then said the rich man : * Abraham, if that can not be,
send him to my five brethren who are still on the earth
where I was, that he may tell them in what punishment
I am, and may admonish them to take their warning not
to come hither.' Then said Abraham : ' Nay, nay ; they
have the books of the holy Fathers with them on earth.
Let them study them and believe them. If they do not
believe them, neither will they believe Lazarus, though he
come to them.'
Now we can hear that both the departed good and thig
wicked know all that happeneth in this world, and also
in the world in which they are. They know the greatest
part — though they do not know it all before Doomsday
— and they have very clear remembrance of their kin and
friends in the world. And the good help the good, every
one of them another, as much as they can. But the good
will not have mercy on their wicked friends, because the
latter do not wish to depart from their evil, any more
than Abraham would pity the rich man wdio was his own
kin, because he perceived that he was not so humble to
God as he ought rightly to be. The wicked, then, can
neither do their friends nor themselves any good, because
they were formerly, when they were in this world, of no
aid either to themselves or to their friends who had passed
away before them. But it shall be with them even as it
is with men who are in this world brought into the prison
of some king, and can see their friends all day and ask
about them what they desire, albeit they can not be of any
good to them, nor the prisoners to them ; they have neither
the wish nor the ability. Wlierefore the wicked have the
greater punishment in the world to come, because they
SELECTIONS FROM ST. AUGUSTINE 145
know the glory and the honor of the good, and all the
more because they recall all the honor which they had in
this world ; and moreover they know the honor which
those have who shall then be left behuid them in this
world.
Howbeit, the good, then, who have full freedom, see
both their friends and their enemies, just as in this life
lords and rulers often see together both their friends and
their enemies. They see them alike and know them alike,
albeit they do not love them alike. And again the right-
eous, after they are out of this world, shall recall very often
both the good and the evil which they had in this world,
and rejoice very much that they did not depart from their
Lord's will, either in easy or in hidden things, while they
were in this world. Just so some king in this world may
have driven one of his favorites from him, or he may
have been forced from the king against both their wills ;
then hath he many torments and many mishaps in his
exile, yet he may come to the same lord whom he before
was with, and there be much more w^orshipful than he
was. Then he will recall the misfortunes which he had
there in his exile, and yet not be the more unhappy. But
I myself saw or [believed] what more untrustworthy men
told me than those were who told what we are seeking.
Must I not needs do one of two things — either believe
some men or none ? Methinks now that I know who
built the city of Eome, and also many another thing which
existed before our day, all of which I can not sum up. I
know not who built the city of Eome for the reason that
I myself saw it. Nor even know I of what kin I am, nor
who my father or mother was, except by hearsay. I know
that my father begat me and my mother bare me, but I
do not know it because I myself saw it, but because it
146 THE WORKS OF KING ALFRED
was told me. Howbeit, not so trustworthy men told that
to me as those were who said that which we now for a
long time have sought for ; and still I believe it.
Therefore methinks that man very foolish and very
wretched who will not increase liis intelligence while he
is in this world, and also wish and desire that he may
come to the eternal life, where nothing is hid from us.
Here end the sayings which King Alfred collected from
the book which we call in . . .
Henky L. Hargrove
Ill
^LFRIC AND THE HOMILISTS
SELECTIONS FROM CLERIC
[ -^Ifric, the foremost representative of English culture in the
' tenth and early eleventh centuries, was born not far from 955 a.d.,
and died after 1020. He was educated under ^-Ethelwold in the
Old Minster at Winchester, having probably entered it about
971. Here he remained until after the death of ^thelwold (984).
By iEthelwold's successor, jElfheah (more commonly known as
Alphege), he was sent to the monastery of Cernel, or Cerne, five
miles north of Dorchester, where he probably remained from
987 to 989. From Cerne he returned to Winchester, first having
begun his Homilies, and at Winchester completed both volumes
of these (990-994), his Grammar (995), Lives of Saitits (996), his
translation of the Pentateuch and Joshua, and his so-called Canons
(998-1001?). In 1005 his friend ^thelma^r, a wealthy and prom-
inent thane, founded a monastery at Eynsham, five or six miles
northwest of Oxford. ^Ifric was probably its first abbot, and
remained in office till the end of his life, composing various other
works in his leisure, and being cheered by the presence of iEthel-
mser, who had decided to pass the remainder of his life in the
monastery. ^Ifric was alive in November, 1020, we are almost
certain ; the date of his death is conjectural. His character and
temper may be inferred from the extracts given below. For fur-
ther details, see Cook, Biblical Quotations in Old English Prose
Writers, Series I (London and New York, 1898), pp. Ixivff., and
White, jElfric (New York, 1898). The Homilies have been printed,
with a translation, by Thorpe (London, 1844-6).
1. PREFACE TO THE TRANSLATION OF GENESIS
^Ifric the monk sends greeting in all humility to
^thelweard the earl.
Wlien you desired me, honored friend, to translate the
book of Genesis from Latin into English, I was loth to
:49
150 ^LFRIC AND THE HOMILISTS
grant your request ; upon which you assured me thdt I
should need to translate only so far as the account of Isaac,
Abraham's son, seeing that some other person had ren-
dered it for you from that point to the end. Now I am
concerned lest the work should be dangerous for me or
any one else to undertake, because I fear that, if some
foolish man should read this book or hear it read, he
would imagine that he could live now, under the New
Dispensation, just as the patriarchs lived before the old
law was established, or as men lived under the law of
Moses. At one time I was aware that a certain priest,
who was then my master, and who had some knowledge
of Latin, had in his possession the book of Genesis ; he did
not scruple to say that the patriarch Jacob had four wives
— two sisters and their two handmaids. What he said
was true enough, but neither did he realize, nor did I as
yet, what a difference there is between the Old Dispensa-
tion and the New. In the early ages the brother took his
sister to wife ; sometimes the father had children by his
own daughter ; many had several wives for the increase of
the people ; and one could only marry among his kindred.
Any one who now, since the coming of Christ, lives as
men lived before or under the Mosaic law, that man is no
Christian ; in fact, he is not worthy to have a Christian
eat with him. If ignorant priests have some inklmg of the
sense of their Latin books, they hnmediately think that
they can set up for great teachers ; but they do not recog-
nize the spiritual signification, and how the Old Testament
was a prefiguration of things to come, and how the New
Testament, after the incarnation of Christ, was the fulfil-
ment of all those things which the Old Testament fore-
shadowed concerning Christ and His elect. Eef erring to
Paul, they often wish to know why they may not have
SELECTIONS FROM iELFRIC 151
wives as well as the apostle Peter ; but they will neither
hear nor know that the blessed Peter lived according to
Moses' law until Christ came to men and began to preach
His holy gospel, Peter being the first companion that He
chose ; and that Peter forthwith forsook his wife, and all
the twelve apostles who had wives forsook both wives and
goods, and followed Christ's teaching to that new law and
purity which he himself set up. ... I say in advance
that this book has a very profound spiritual signification,
and I undertake to do nothing more than relate the
naked facts. The uneducated will think that all the mean-
ing is included in the simple narrative, while such is by
no means the case. ... I dare write no more in English
than the Latin has, nor change the order except so far as
English idiom demands. Whoever translates or teaches
from Latin mto Enghsh must always arrange it so that
the English is idiomatic, else it is very misleading to one
who does not know the Latin idiom. . . . Now I protest
that I neither dare nor will translate any book hereafter
from Latin into English; and I beseech you, dear earl,
not to urge me any longer, lest I should be disobedient
to you, or break my word if I should promise. God be
gracious to you for evermore.
Albert S. Cook
2. ENGLISH PREFACE TO THE GRAMMAR
Grammar, ed. Ziipitza, pp. 2-3
I, ^Ifric, after translating two books of eighty homilies,
wished to translate into the English tongue this little book
of grammar, since grammar is the key that unlocks the
meaning of those books. And I thought that this book
might help young children in beginning that art, until
152 iELFRIC AND THE IIOMTLTSTS
they have attained to greater knowledge. It behoves every
man who has any good talent to make that talent useful
to other men, and to commit unto others the pound which
God hath entrusted unto him,^ in order that God's money
may not lie idle, and lest he be called a wicked servant,
and be bound and cast into darkness, even as the holy
gospel saith. It is fitting that young men should acquire
knowledge, and that the old should teach their youth wis-
dom, since, by means of learning, faith is kept, and every
man who lovetli wisdom is happy ; whereas the mind of
him who will neither learn nor teach, if he can, becomes
cool toward holy lore, and thus, little by little, he turns
from God. Whence shall come wise teachers for God's
people unless they learn in youth? And how can faith
increase if learning and teachers fail ? Wherefore God's
servants and monks must now zealously take care that
holy lore neither become cool nor fail in our days, as was
the case among the English a few years since, so that no
English priest could either write or understand a letter in
Latin,2 until Archbishop Dunstan and Bishop ^thelwold
again established learning in monastic life. Hence I say,
not that this book may help many to knowledge, but
that, if it pleases them, it may be, as it were, an opening
to every language,
3. ENGLISH PREFACE TO HOMILIES I
I, ^Ifric, monk and priest — though unequal to such
offices — was sent by ^Ethel wold's successor, Bishop ^If-
heah, in the days of King ^thelred, to a monastery called
Cernel, at the request of ^Ethelniffir the thane, whose
lineage and goodness are everywhere known. Then it
1 Matt. 25. 14 ff. ; Lk. 19. 12 fp. 2 cf. p. 101.
SELECTIONS FROM ^LFRIC 153
occurred to me, I trust through the grace of God, to trans-
late this book from the Latin language into the English
tongue, not through confidence of great learning, but be-
cause I have seen and heard much error m many English
books, which, in their innocence, unlearned men have con-
sidered great wisdom. And I regretted that they neither
knew nor had the evangelical doctrines among their writ-
ings — always exceptmg those men who knew Latin, and
save for those books which King Alfred wisely translated
from Latin into Enghsh, and which are to be had. For
this reason I ventured, trusting in God, to undertake this
work, and also because men have need of good instruction,
especially at the present time, which is the end of this
world. . . . Our Lord commanded His disciples to instruct
all nations ^ in the things which He Himself had taught
them; but of such men there are now too few who will
teach well, and set a good example. . . . Because of such
commands, it seems to me that I should not be guiltless
in the sight of God if I were unwilling to make known to
other men, either by word of mouth or in writing, the
evangelical truth which He Himself spake, and afterwards
revealed to holy teachers. I know a great many m this
country more learned than I, but God declares His wonders
through wdiom He will. As an almighty Euler, He per-
forms His work through His chosen, not as if He needed
our help, but in order that we may attain everlasting life
by accomplishmg His work. Paul the Apostle said, ' We
are laborers together with God,' ^ and yet we do nothing
for God without the help of God.
Now I beg and beseech, in God's name, if any one
desires to copy this book, that he carefully correct it by
the original.
1 Matt. 28. 19. 2 1 Cor. 3. 9.
154 ^LFRIC AND THE IIOMILTSTS
4. ENGLISH PREFACE TO HOMILIES II
I, ^Ifric, a monk, have translated this book from Latin
books into the English tongue, for those men to read who
do not know Latin. I have taken it from the holy gos-
pels, and have treated it according to the expositions of
the illustrious doctors whose names I wrote in the former
book, in the Latm preface.^ I have disposed in two books
the narratives which I have translated, thinking it would
be less tedious to hear if one book should be read in the
course of one year, and the other the year following. In
each of these books there are forty discourses, without the
preface; but they are not all taken from the gospels,
many of them being collected from the lives or the passions
of God's saints — but only of those whom the English na-
tion honors with feast-days. Before each discourse I have
put the title in Latin, but any one who wishes may change
the order of the chapters after the preface.^
5. NEW YEAR'S DAY
Horn. 1. 98-102
We have often heard that men call this day New Year's
Day, as if this day were first in the course of the year;
but in Christian books we find no explanation of why this
day should be considered the beginning of the year. The
old Eomans, in heathen times, began the course of the year
on this day; the Hebrew nations at the vernal equinox;
the Greeks at the summer solstice; while the Egyptians
1 Augustine, Jerome, Bede, Gregory the Great, Smaragdus, and occa-
sionally Haymo.
2 The close of the preface to each set of homilies is identical with that
of the preface to Genesis, and that of the preface to the Grammar.
SELECTIONS FROM .ELFPvIC 155
began the calculation of their year at harvest. Now our
calendar begins, accordmg to Eoman ordinance, on this
day, for no religious reason, but from old custom. Some
of our service-books begin at the Lord's advent, yet not
on that account is it the beginning of the year, nor with
any reason is the beginning placed on this day, though our
calendars repeat it at this place. Most rightly it seems
that the beginning of the year should be observed on the
day when the Almighty Creator made the sun and the
moon and the stars, and the beginning of all the seasons,
that is, on the day when the Hebrew people begin the cal-
culation of their year, as Moses the leader wrote in the
books of the law. Verily God said unto Moses concerning
that month, ' This month shall be unto you the beginnmg
of months ; it shall be the first month of the year to you.' ^
Now the Hebrew people kept the first day of the year at
the vernal equinox, because on that day the yearly seasons
were set.
The eighteenth day of the month that we call March,
which you call Hlyda,^ was the first day of this world. On
that day God made light, and morning, and evening. Then
followed three days without measure of time, for the heav-
enly bodies were not created before the fourth day. On
the fourth day the Almighty established all the heavenly
bodies, and the yearly seasons, and commanded them to be
for a sign for days and years. Now the Hebrews begin
their year on the day when all the seasons were appointed,
that is, on the fourth day of the creation of the world, and
the teacher Bede, with great discrimination, reckons that
that day is the twenty-first of March, the day which we
celebrate in honor of the holy man Benedict, because of
1 Exod. 12. 2.
2 The loud month (roaring, bhistering), from OE. hlM, ' loud.'
156 ^LFRIC AND THE HOMILISTS
his great distinction. Indeed the earth too makes known
by her shoots, which then renew their life, that the time
when they were created is the most correct beginning of
the year.
Now with great error, in accordance with heathen cus-
tom, and contrary to their Christianity, foohsh men practise
manifold divinations on this day, as if they could prolong
their lives or their prosperity, while they provoke the Al-
mighty Creator. Many are also possessed with such great
error that they regulate their journeying by the moon,
and their deeds according to days, not bemg willing to
undertake anything on Monday, because of the beginning
of the week, although Monday is not the first day in the
week, but the second. . . .
Nevertheless, according to nature, every bodily creature
in creation which the earth produces is fuller and more
vigorous at full moon than in its wane. So also trees, if
they are felled at full moon, are harder and more lasting
for building, especially if they are rendered sapless. This
is no charm, but a natural thing, by reason of their forma-
tion. Behold, the sea also accords with the course of the
moon ; they are always companions in their increase and
decrease. And as the moon rises each day four points
later, so also does the sea flow four points later.
6. DAILY MIRACLES
Horn. 1. 184-5
God hath wrought many miracles, and He performs them
every day, but these miracles have become much less im-
portant in the sight of men because they are very common.
The fact that each day God Almighty feeds the whole
world, and guides the good, is a greater miracle than was
SELECTIONS FROM yELFRIC 157
that of filling five thousand men with five loaves ; yet men
wondered at that, not because it was a greater miracle, but
because it was unusual. Who now makes our fields pro-
ductive, and multiphes the harvest from a few grains, but
He who multiplied the five loaves ? The power was in
Christ's hands, and the five loaves were, so to speak, seed —
not sown in the ground, but multiphed by Him who created
the earth.
This miracle is very great, and deep in significance.
Frequently one sees beautiful letters written, and praises
the writer and the letters, but does not know what they
mean. He who can distinguish between letters praises their
beauty, but also reads the letters, and understands what
they mean. We look at a painting in one way, and at letters
in another. In the case of a painting, nothing more is neces-
sary than for you to see and praise it ; it is not sufficient for
you to look at letters without also reading them, and under-
standmg their meaning. So likewise is it in regard to that
miracle which God wrought with the five loaves ; it is not
enough for us to wonder at the sign, or to praise God for
it, unless we also comprehend its spiritual significance.
7. GOD AND THE HUMAN SOUL
Horn. 1. 284-8
Consider carefully the sun, in which there are, as w^e
said before, heat and light ; the heat dries, and the light
illumines. The heat does one thing, and the light another,
and although they cannot be separated, the heating per-
tains, nevertheless, to the heat, and the ilkimination to the
light. In like manner, also, Christ alone assumed humanity,
and not the Father nor the Holy Ghost ; yet they w^ere
always with Him in all His works, and in all His course.
158 ^LFRIC AND THE HOMILISTS
We speak of God — mortals, of the Immortal ; feeble,
of the Almighty; wretched, of the Merciful; but who can
speak worthily of that which is ineffable ? He is without
measure, because He is everywhere. He is without number,
because He is eternal. He is without weight, for He holds
all creatures without effort ; and He disposed them all in
respect to these three things — namely, measure, number,
and weight.^ But know ye that no man can speak fully con-
cerning God, since we cannot even examine or explain the
creatures which He has created. Who can declare in words
the array of heaven, or who the fruitfulness of the earth ?
Who shall adequately praise the circuit of all the sea-
sons ? Or who shall do so with regard to all other things,
since we cannot, with our sight, fully apprehend the mate-
rial tilings which we behold ? Lo, thou seest a man before
thee, but while thou art looking at his face, thou canst not
see his back. In the same way, if thou art looking at a
garment, thou canst not see it all at once, but turnest it
about in order to see all of it. Wliat wonder is it, then, if
Almighty God, who is everywhere all in all and nowhere
divided, is ineffable and incomprehensible ?
Now some shallow-bramed man will ask how God can
be everywhere at once, and nowhere divided. Look at the
sun, how high it rises, and how it sends its rays over the
whole world, and how it illumines all this earth which
mankind inhabit. As soon as it rises at early morn, it
shines on Jerusalem, and on Eome, and on tliis country,
and on all countries at once ; nevertheless, it is a created
thing, and moves by God's command. Imagine, then, how
much more powerful is God's presence, and His might,
and His visitation everywhere ! Him nothing withstands,
1 Wisd. of Sol. 11. 21: 'Omnia in mensure, et uumere, et pondere
disposuisti.'
SELECTIOXS FROM .ELFRIC 159
neither stone wall nor broad barrier, as they withstand the
sun. To Him is nothing hidden or unknown. Thou seest
a man's face, but God seeth his heart. The Spirit of God
tries the hearts of all men ; and those w^ho beheve on Him
and love Him, He cleanseth and maketh glad with His
visitation, but the hearts of unbelievers He passes by and
shuns.
Let every one know, also, that each man has within
himself three things, indivisible and cooperative, even as
God said when He first created man. He said, ' Let us
make man in our image.' And then He made Adam after
His own likeness. In which part has man the likeness of
God within him ? In the soul, not in the body. The soul
of man has in its nature a likeness to the Holy Trinity,
for it has within it three things — memory, understanding,
and will. Through memory a man considers the things
which he has heard, or seen, or learned. Through the
understanding he comprehends all the things which he
hears or sees. From the will come thoughts, and words,
and works, both evil and good. There is one soul, and one
life, and one substance, which has in it these three things
working together inseparably, for where memory is, there
are understanding and will, and they are always together.
Yet the soul is no one of these three, but by the memory
the soul remembers, by the understanding it comprehends,
and by the will it wills whatever it pleases ; but it is, never-
theless, one soul and one life. A^Tierefore it has the like-
ness of God within itself, since it has within it three things
working inseparably. Yet the man is one man, and not a
trinity; but God — Father, Son, and Holy Ghost — abides
in a trinity of persons, and in the imity of one Godhead.
Man exists not in trinity, as God does, yet he bears in
his soul the image of God.
160 ^LFRIC AND THE II0M1LI8TS '
8. SPIRITUAL MIRACLES
Horn. 1. 304-6
The Lord said, ' These signs shall follow them that be-
lieve : In my name shaU they cast out devils ; they shall
speak with new tongues ; they shall take up serpents ;
and if they drink any deadly thing, it shall not hurt
them; they shall lay hands on the sick, and they shall
recover.' ^
These miracles were necessary at the beginning of
Christianity, for through signs the heathen were turned
to faith. The man who plants trees or herbs continues to
water them until they are rooted; when they begin to
grow, he stops the watering. In like manner, Almighty
God continued to show miracles to the heathen until
they believed ; after faith had sprung up throughout the
whole world, then miracles ceased. But, nevertheless, God's
Church still performs daily, in a spiritual way, the same
miracles which the apostles wrought in a physical way.
When the priest christens a child, he casts the devil out
of that child, for every heathen man is the devil's, but
through holy baptism, if he observe it, he becomes God's.
He who renounces disgraceful words and calumnies and
harmful scofhngs, and busies liis mouth with the praises
of God and with prayers, speaks with new tongues. He who
controls foolishness or impatience, and restrains the bitter-
ness of his heart, drives away serpents, for he destroys the
wickedness of his mind. He who is allured to fornication,
yet is not induced to carry it into effect, drinks poison, but
it shall not hurt him if he flees to God in prayer. If any
one be infirm of purpose, and indifferent to good conduct,
then if another strengthen liim and raise him up with
1 Mark 16. 17, 18.
SELECTIONS FRO.AI .ELFRIC 161
exhortation and examples of good works, it shall be as if
he had laid his hands on the sick and healed him.
Spiritual miracles are greater than the physical ones
were, for they heal a man's soul, which is eternal, whereas
the earlier signs healed the mortal body. Both good men
and evil wrought the earher miracles. Judas, who betrayed
Christ, was evil, though he had previously wrought mir-
acles in the name of God. Of such men Christ said in
another place : ^ ' I say unto you, many will say unto me
in that great day. Lord, Lord, have we not prophesied in
thy name, and in thy name have cast out devils from
madmen, and in thy name done many wonderful works ?
And then will I profess unto them, I never knew you ;
depart from me, ye that work iniquity.' My brethren, love
not those miracles which may be common to the good and
to the evil, but love those signs which are exclusively those
of good men — the signs of true love and piety. The evil
man hath not true love, nor is the good man devoid of it.
These signs are mysterious and without danger, and they
receive so much the greater reward at the hands of God
as their glory is less with men.
9. ALL SAINTS
Horn. 1. 538-5i6
God's saints are angels and men. Angels are spirits
without bodies. The Almighty Ruler created them very
fair, for His own praise, and to the glory and honor of His
majesty for ever. We fear to speak much concerning them,
since it is for God alone to know how their invisible nature
endures in eternal purity, without an}- defilement or diminu-
tion. Nevertheless, we know from Holy Scripture that there
1 Matt. 7. 22, 23.
162 ^ELFRIC AND THE HOMILISTS
are nine hosts ^ of angels dwelling in heavenly glory, who
never committed any sin. The tenth host perished through
pride, and were transformed into accursed spirits, driven
from the joy of heaven mto hell-torment.
But some of those holy spirits w^ho continued with their
Creator are sent to us, and they reveal future events. Some
of them, at God's command, work signs, and frequently
miracles, in the world. Some of them are leaders set over
other angels for the fulfilment of divine mysteries. Through
some God establishes and gives out His decrees. Some are
so closely associated with God that there are no others be-
tween them, and they are consumed with so much the
greater love as they the more keenly discern the bright-
ness of God. Now this day is solemnly consecrated to
these angels, and also to the holy men who in great honor,
from the beginning of the world, grew ever nearer to God.
Of these were first the patriarchs, men of religious and
glorious lives, the fathers of the prophets, whose memory
shall not be forgotten, and whose names shall endure for
ever,2 because they pleased God by faith, and righteousness,
and obedience. The chosen company of prophets follow
these; they talked wdth God, and He revealed to them
His mysteries, and enlightened them with the grace of
the Holy Ghost, so that they knew things to come, which
tliey proclaimed in prophetic song. . . . Taught by the
Holy Ghost, they prophesied the humanity of 'Christ, His
passion, resurrection, and ascension, and the Great Judg-
ment. In the New Testament, there was John the Baptist,
who prophetically preached the advent of Christ. . . .
After the apostolic company, we honor the steadfast band
of God's martyrs, who through divers torments manfully
1 Cf . Gregory the Great, Hoin. in Evang. 34. 7.
2 Cf . Ecclus/li. 9 fe.
SELECTIONS FROM .ELFRIC 163
imitated the passion of Christ, and through martyrdom
attained the celestial kingdom. . . .
After the persecution carried on by the cruel kings and
ealdormen had ceased, in the peaceful condition of God's
Church there were holy priests growing in the grace of
God, who, with true doctrine and holy examples, continu-
ally turned the men of the nation to God. Their mmds
were clean and filled with purity, and with clean hands
they served God Almighty at His altar, celebrating the
holy mystery of the body and blood of Christ. They also
offered themselves a living sacrifice to God,i without cor-
ruption or admixture of any evil work. They delivered to
their disciples that which they had been taught of God, as
an imperishable revenue, turning their minds to the way
of Hfe with admonition, and prayer, and great diligence ;
nor through any fear of the world did they keep silence as
to God's law. Although they did not feel the edge of the
sword, yet because of the worthiness of their lives they were
not deprived of martyrdom, for inartyrdom is not brought
about by bloodshed alone, lait also by abstinence from sins,
and by the observance of God's commands.
There followed the life and peculiar insight of the
anchorites. They, dwelling in wildernesses, trampled with
stern courage and austere life upon worldly delicacies and
luxuries. They fled from the sight and the praise of lay-
men, and hiding in wretched caves or huts, associating with
beasts, accustomed to angelic discourses, became glorious
through their great miracles. To the Ijlind they gave sight ;
to the lame, power to walk ; to the deaf, hearing ; to the
dumb, speech. They overcame devils and put them to flight;
and through the power of God they raised the dead. The
book called Vitce Patnim speaks in many ways of the lives
1 Cf. Rom. 12. 1.
164 .ELFRIC AND THE IIOMILISTS
of these anchorites, and also about those of common monks,
saying that there were thousands of them living every-
where, in a wonderful manner, in deserts and in monaster-
ies, especially in Egypt. Some of them lived on fruit and
herbs, some by their own toil ; to some angels ministered,
and to others birds,^ until angels later bore them by an
easy death to God. . . .
To all these aforesaid saints, that is, angels and God's
chosen men, the honor of this day is consecrated in the
faithful Church, for their glory and for our help, in order
that through their intercession we- may have fellowship
with them.
10. THE EASTER HOMILY
Horn. 2. 2G-2 ft'.
The date (1567) of the publication, in Elizabeth's reign, of the
Easter Homili/, may conveniently be reckoned as that which marks
the beginning of the study of English, as we now understand that
term. The English Protestants were casting about for some way
of proving that they were not such absolute innovators as the
Romanists had assumed. At this juncture. Archbishop Matthew
Parker, and his chaplain, John Joscelyn, published A Testimonie
of Antiquitie, shewing the auncient Fat/th in the Church of England
touching the Sacrament of the Bod g and Bloude of the Lord, the ' testi-
mony ' being this homily.
The passion to explore our earlier literature and language thus
had a theological root. The book was reprinted in 1623, 1638,
and 1687, not to speak of more modern editions ; and part of it
was included in Foxe's Acts and Monuments. Controversy has raged
about the Easter Homihj down to comparatively recent times. Thus
^Odiiwes {Anglo-Saxon Church, London, 1856, p. 202) speaks of it,
and ^Elfric's two epistles, as 'irresistible evidence that neither he,
nor the Church of England in his day, held the eucharistic belief
of modern Rome.' On the other hand, Lingard {Anglo-Saxon
Church, London, 1858, 2. 408 ft.), in a long note on ^Ifric, affirms
1 Cf . 1 Kiugs 17. 6.
SELECTIONS FROM .ELFRIC 165
that iElfric's language on the subject was not that of the Old Eng-
lish Church in general, but peculiar to himself, since in this homily
he was dependent upon Ratramnus, who lived about 860 ; but that
his meaning was not heterodox, and that (p. 426) ' he makes use
of distinctions very like those adopted by the Council of Trent,
and in use among Catholic divines at the present day. ' It may be
added that Ratramntis (whom Lingard calls Bertram) has never
been condemned as heretical by the Roman Church, though his
writings were placed upon the Index by Pope Paul IV in 1559
(Wetzer and Welte, Kirchenlexlkon, 2d ed. , 10. 805-6). The follow-
ing extract from his treatise On the Body and Blood of Christ (Migne,
Pair. Lat. 121. 147) will indicate something of the relation between
his doctrine and that of iElfric : <■ The body and blood of Christ,
partaken of in the Church by the mouth of the faithful, are sym-
bols (Jiyurce) according to the visible appearance ; but according
to the invisible substance, that is, by the power of the divine
Word, are truly the body and blood of Christ.'
Dearly beloved, you have frequently been told about
the resurrection of our Saviour — how, on this day, after
His passion, He mightily arose from death. We will
now, through the grace of God, enlighten you concerning
the holy eucharist to which you are about to go, and
guide your understanding with regard to that mystery,
according to the teaching of both the Old Testament
and the New, lest any doubt as to that banquet of life do
you harm.
God Almighty directed Moses, the leader in Egypt, to
command ^ the people of Israel that, on the night in which
they were to depart thence to the promised land, they
should take a yearling lamb for every hearth, offer that
lamb to God, and then kill it, making with its blood the
sign of the cross over their door-posts and lintels, and after-
wards eat of the lamb's flesh roasted, together with un-
leavened bread and wild lettuce. . . .
1 Exod. 12. 3 ff.
166 ^LFRIC AND THE HOMILISTS
To-day Christian men may not keep the oki law literally,
but at least they are bound to know its spiritual signifi-
cance. The innocent lamb which the ancient Israel used
to slay was a symbol, spiritually interpreted, of the passion
of Christ, who, though innocent, shed His holy blood for
our sins. Wherefore at every mass God's servants sing,
Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi, miserere nobis, which,
being interpreted, is, ' 0 Lamb of God, who takest away
the sins of the world, have mercy upon us.' The people of
Israel were delivered from sudden death, and from bondage
to Pharaoh, through the offering of the lamb, wliicli signi-
fied Christ's passion, by which we are redeemed from eter-
nal death and from the power of the raging devil, if we
rightly believe on the true Eedeemer of the whole world,
Jesus Christ. The lamb was offered at evening, and our
Saviour suffered in the sixth age of the world, which is con-
sidered the evenmg of this transitory world. Over their
door-posts and lintels was marked with the blood of the
Iamb Tau, that is, the sign of the cross, and thus were they
protected from the angel that slew the first-born children
of the Egyptians. And we must mark our foreheads and
our hearts with the sign of Christ's cross, in order that,
being thus marked with the blood of our Lord's passion, we
may be saved from destruction.
The people of Israel ate the flesh of the lamb at their
Eastertide, when they were delivered, and we now partake
spiritually of Christ's body and drink His blood, when
with true faith we receive the holy eucharist. The time
when they had been saved from Pharaoh, and had departed
from the country, they were accustomed to keep for seven
days with great honor, as their Eastertide. And in like
manner, we Christian men keep Christ's resurrection for
seven da3"S as our Eastertide, because through His passion
SELECTIONS FROM CLERIC 167
and resurrection we are redeemed, and we shall be puri-
fied by partaking of the holy sacrament, even as Christ
Himself said in His gospel : ^ ' Verily, verily I say unto
you, except ye eat my flesh and drink my blood, ye have
no life in you. He that eateth my flesh and drinketh my
blood dwelleth in me and I in him, and he hath eternal
life, and I will raise him up at the last day. I am the
living bread which came down from heaven. Not as your
fathers did eat heavenly food in the wilderness, and are
dead : he that eateth of this bread shall live for ever.' He
blessed bread before His passion, and gave it to His disci-
ples, saying, ' Eat this bread, it is my body ; tliis do in re-
membrance of me.' Afterwards He blessed wine in a cup,
saying, ' Drink ye all of it, this is my blood which is shed
for many for the remission of sins.' The apostles did as
Christ had commanded them, in that they were afterwards
wont to bless bread and wine in remembrance of Him.^
So also, according to Christ's behest, their successors and
all priests consecrate bread and w^ine for communion in
His name, and with the apostolic blessing.
Some men have often wondered, and frequently wonder
still, how bread prepared from grain, and baked by the heat
of the fire, can be changed to Christ's body ; or how wine,
pressed from many grapes, can by any blessing be changed
to the Lord's blood. Now we say to such men that some
things are related of Christ figuratively, and some literally.
It is certam that Christ was born of a \'irgin, and by His
own will suffered death and was buried, and on this day
arose from death. He is called in a figurative sense Bread,
and Lamb, and Lion, and so on. He is called Bread, since
He is our life, and that of the angels; He is called Lamb on
account of His innocence, and Lion because of the strength
1 Cf . John 6. 53 fP. ; Matt. 26. 26-28. 2 cf. 1 Cor. 11. 24. 25.
168 .ELFRIC AXD THE HOMILISTS
with which He overcame the powerful deviL Yet accord-
ing to His true nature Christ is neither bread, nor a lamb,
nor a lion. AVhy then is the holy eucharist called Christ's
body, if it is not truly that which it is called ? ^ The bread
and the wine which are consecrated through the mass of
priests appear one thing to our human understanding, as
viewed from without, and quite another to believing souls,
as viewed from within. From without, both in appearance
and taste, they seem bread and wine, but after the conse-
cration they are truly, through a spiritual mystery, the body
and blood of Christ. AMien a heathen child is baptized, its
outward appearance is not altered, though its inner nature
is changed. Through Adam's transgression it is sinful when
brought to the font, but it is cleansed of all inward sins,
although its outward appearance is not transformed. In like
manner the holy baptismal water, which is called the well
of life, in appearance resembles other water, and is subject
to corruption ; but when, through the priestly benediction,
the power of the Holy Ghost is brought nigh this cor-
ruptible water, by its spiritual efficacy it cleanses body and
soul from all sins. In this one element we find two char-
acteristics : in its true nature the water is a corruptible
fluid, but according to a spiritual mystery it has healing
power. So also if we consider the holy eucharist in a phys-
ical sense, we see that it is a corruptible and changeable
substance, but if we discern its spiritual efficacy, then we
perceive that there is life in it, and that upon those who
1 It may be interesting to read a sentence or two from the Elizabethan
translation mentioned above (taken from the reprint of 1638) : ' Why is
then that holy housell called Christs Body, or his Blond, if it be not truly
that it is called ? Truly the Bread and the Wine which by the Masse of the
Priest is hallowed, shew one thing without to humane vnderstanding, and
another thing they call within to beleeuing minds. Without they be seene
Bread and Wine both in figure and in taste, and they be truly after their
hallowing, Christs Body and his Bloud, through ghostly mystery.'
SELECTIONS FROM tELFRIC 169
receive it in true faith it confers immortality. Great is the
difference between the corruptible virtue of the holy sacra-
ment and its visible aspect. By nature it is corruptible
bread and wine, but through the power of the divine word
it is indeed the body and the blood of Christ, not however
in a hteral sense, but spiritually. Very different is the body
in wliich Christ suffered from the body which is consecrated
to the eucharist. The body in which Christ suffered was
born of Mary's flesh, with blood and bones, skin and sinews
and human limbs, quickened by a rational soul ; whereas
His spiritual body, which we call the eucharist, is gathered
from many grains, is without blood and bone and limbs,
and hath no soul ; wherefore it is to be interpreted in no
wdse literally, but wholly in a spiritual sense. Whatever
the sacrament contains of life-gi^dng power comes from
its spiritual virtue and invisible efficacy. Hence the holy
eucharist is called a mystery, because whereas one thing
is seen, another is to be understood, that which is seen
having a material aspect, and that which it symbolizes
possessing spiritual efficacy. Verily Christ's body, which
suffered death and rose from death, shall henceforth never
die, but is eternal and impassible. The sacrament is tem-
poral, not eternal, corruptible, distributed in fragments,
chewed between the teeth and sent into the stomach, but
nevertheless, by reason of spiritual power, its parts are all
one. Many partake of the holy body, and yet, through a
spiritual mystery, the whole of it is in each several part.
Although a smaller part fall to one man, yet there is no
more efficacy in the greater part than in the less, because,
through its invisible virtue, it is complete in each man.
This mystery is a pledge and a symbol ; Christ's body
is truth. This pledge we hold mystically until we come to
the truth, and then will it be fulfilled. Verily it is, as we
170 ^LFRIC AND THE HOMILISTS
said before, the body and the blood of Christ, not literally,
but spiritually. Nor must ye wonder how this is brought
about, but have faith that it is thus effected. . . .
Paul the apostle, in an epistle to believers, wrote thus ^
of the ancient people Israel: 'All our forefathers were
baptized in the cloud and in the sea, and they did all eat
the same spiritual meat, and did all drink the same spiritual
drink. They drank from that Eock that followed them, and
that Eock was Christ.' The rock from which the water
flowed was not Christ literally, but it symbolized Christ,
who declared unto all believers : ^ ' If any man thirst, let
him come unto me and drink, and out of his belly shall
flow living water.' This He said of the Holy Ghost, whom
those received who believed on Him. The apostle Paul
said that the people of Israel ate the same spiritual meat^
and drank the same spiritual drink, because the heavenly
food which fed them for forty years, and the water which
flowed from the rock, symbolized Christ's body and His
blood, which are now offered daily in God's Church. They
were the same which we now offer, not literally, but
spiritually.
We told you a little while ago that before His passion
Christ blessed bread and wine for communion, saying,
' This is my body and my blood.' He had not yet suffered,
but nevertheless through invisible power He turned the
bread into His own body, and the wine into His blood,
even as He had formerly done in the wilderness before
He was born as man, when He changed the heavenly meat
into His flesh, and the water that flowed from the rock
into His blood. Many did eat of the heavenly meat in the
wilderness, and drink the spiritual drink, and then died,
even as Christ said. Christ did not mean that death which
1 Cf. 1 Cor. 10. 1-4. 2 cf . John 7. 37-9.
SELECTIONS FROM .ELFRIC 171
no man can escape, but He meant the eternal death which,
because of unbelief, some of the people had merited. Moses
and Aaron, and many others of the people who pleased
God, ate the heavenly bread, and did not suffer eternal
death, although they died the common death. They per-
ceived that the heavenly meat was visible and corruptible,
but they understood the visible thing in a spiritual sense,
and partook of it spiritually. Jesus said, ' Wlioso eateth
my flesh, and drinketh my blood, hath eternal life.' He
did not command men to eat the body with wliich He was
mvested, nor to drink the blood which He shed for us, but
by these words He meant the holy eucharist, which is
spiritually His body and His blood, and he who tastes of
that with believing heart hath eternal hfe.
Under the old law believers offered to God divers gifts
that prefigured Christ's body, which He Hunself after-
wards offered to His heavenly Father as a sacrifice for our
sins. Verily this sacrament which is now consecrated at
God's altar is a memorial of Christ's body, which He offered
for us, and of His blood, which He shed for us, even as
He Himself commanded, ' This do in remembrance of me.'
Christ suffered once through Himself,^ but nevertheless
His passion is daily renewed through the mystery of the
holy eucharist at holy mass. A\nierefore, as has often been
manifested, the holy mass greatly benefits both the li^'ing
and the dead. We must also consider that, according to a
spiritual mystery, the holy sacrament is both the body of
Christ and that of all behevers, as the wise Augustine said
of it : ' If you will understand concerning the body of Christ,
hear the apostle Paul, who says, " You are truly the body
and the members of Christ." Now your mystery is laid on
God's table, and you receive your mystery, to which you
1 Cf. 1 Pet. 3. 18.
iTi! -i:lfhto anp thk homilists
youi'selves have boon iransforinod. IV what you soo on
the altar, and receive what you youi^olvos are,' ^ Ag-ain the
apostle Paul said on this jxnut, - We, being many, are
one bivad and one body in Christ.' - Tnilerstand now and
rejoice : it is many who constitute one bivad and one body
m Christ, He is our Head, and we are His members. The
bread is not maile of one grain, but of many, nor the wine
of one grai^>e, but of many.*' In like manner we must have
unity in our Txird. as it is written concerning tl\e multi-
tude of them that believed that they were in as groat
unity as if they had had one heart and one soul."*
Christ blessed on His table tlio mysiory'^of our peace
and our unity. Ho who receives the mystery of luiity, and
holds not the bond of true jxwco,^' receives not the mystery
for liimsolf, but as a witness against himself." Much do
Christian men gain by going frequently to communion, if
in their hearts they bear innocemv to the altar, and if they
are not 'beset with sins. To tlio wicked man it brings no
good, but rather destruction, if lie taste of tlio sacrament
1 Aujjustino, Sermo 22*1 (Mij^no, Pafr. Lat. .")i. 110.>) : 'Quia passus est
prt"» nobis, ooniniendavit nobis in isto s:\orainonto corpns ot saniininon\
sunm ; qnod otiani focit ot nos ipsos. Nam et nos oorpns ipsins facti snnuis,
et per niisorii'ordiam ipsins qnod aooopinrns, nos snnms. Rooonlamini, et
vos non fuistis. et ereati estis. . . . Ha'retici qnando hoc aoeipiunt, testi-
moninni contra se aceipinnt : quia illi qinvrnnt divisioneni, onm panis iste
indioet unitatem. Sic ct viniun in mult is racemis fait, et nnxlo in nnum
est. ... In nomine Christi tanqnain ad calicem Domini venistis; et ibi
vos estis in mensa, et ibi vos estis in calico.'
'i 1 Cor. 10. 17.
3 Aniinstino. Sermo 227 (as above, U'»^>^>-1 UX)) : ' Si bono accopislis. vos
estis qnod accepistis. AjHistohis onim dicit : Tnns panis, nnnm corpns.
mnlti sumns. Sicexposuit sacramontnm mensaM")ominica» : Commondatnr
vobis in isto pane qnomodo nnitatem amare doboatis. Nnnupiid enim
panis ille do nno jrrano factns est? Nonno mnlta orant tritici jrrana? Sod
anteqnam ad panom vonirent, separata erant : por aqnam conjnncta snnt.
et post qnamdam contritionem. . . . Et eliicimini panis, qnod est corpns
Christi."
■» Acts 4. :V2. 6 Eph. 4. :?.
s Perhaps in the sense of ' sacrament.' ' See note 1, above.
SELECTTOXS FROM yELFRIC 173
unworthily.^ Holy books command that water he mixed
with the wine used for communion, because water is typical
of the jxiople, even as wine is of the blood of Christ, and
therefore neither should be offered without the other at holy
mass, that Christ may be with us, and we with Christ, the
if cad with the members, and the members with the Head.
11. THE TRUE SHEPHERD AND THE HIRELIXG
Jfom. 1. 238-42
Every bishop and every teacher is placed as a shep-
herd over God's people, to protect that people against the
wolf. The wolf is the devil, who lies in wait about God's
Church, and plots how Uj destroy the souls of Christian
men with sins. Then must the shepherd, that is, the
bishop or other teacher, resist the fierce wolf with doctrine
and with prayers. AVith doctrine he shall instruct them,
so that they may know what the devil teaches for men's
perdition, and what God commands them to observe for the
attainment of everlasting life. He must intercede for them,
praying that God will protect the strong and heal the
weak. He is considered strong who withstands the insti-
gation of the devil; he is weak who falls into sin. But
the teacher shall be guiltless if he guides the people with
doctrine, and intercedes for them with God. These two
things shall he do for the people, and also help others
with his own possessions, and, if it so happen, give his
own life for the salvation of the peojjle.
' The hireling fleeth when he seeth the wolf.' ^ He is a
hireling, and not a shepherd, who is entangled in the things
of the world, who loves honor and perishable rewards,
and has no inward love for God's sheep. He seeks after
1 Cf. 1 Cor. 11. 2*j. 2 cf. John 10. 12.
174 iELFRIC AND THE HOMILTSTS
treasures, and rejoices in honor, and has his reward during
this life, but shall be deprived of everlasting reward. Thou
knowest not who is a hireling, nor who a shepherd, until
the wolf comes ; but the wolf shows how lie cared for the
sheep. ... He flees not in body, but in mind. He flees
because he has seen iniquity, and kept silence. He flees
because he is a hireling, and not a shepherd, as if it were
said, ' He cannot withstand the dangers that beset the sheep
if he does not watch over the sheep with love, but looks
out for himself, that is, loves worldly gain and not God's
people.'
The unrighteous ruler, who robs Christians, and oppresses
the humble with his power, is also a wolf ; but the hireling,
or mercenary, does not dare resist his iniquity, lest he lose
favor, and the worldly gain which he loves more than he
does Christian men. Concerning this the prophet Ezekiel
wrote, saying : ' Ye shepherds, hear the word of the Lord.
My sheep are scattered through your carelessness, and are
devoured. Ye care for your own sustenance, and not for
that of the sheep. Wlierefore I will require the sheep at
your hands, and will cause you to withdraw from the fold,
and I will rescue my flock from you. I myself will collect
my sheep that were scattered, and will keep them in an
abundant pasture. That which was lost I will seek and
bring again ; that which was maimed, I will heal ; the sick
I will strengthen, and will protect the strong ; and I will
feed them in judgment and in righteousness.' ^ . . .
Jesus said : 'And other sheep I have, which are not of
this fold.' . . . This he spake in the land of Judea ; in that
province there was a fold of those who believed in God.
The other sheep are those of all other countries who wor-
ship God ; and Christ will bring them all into one fold.
1 Ezek. 34. 7ff., freely rendered and abridged.
SELECTIONS FROM ^LFRIC 175
12. THE IXVENTIOX OF THE HOLY CROSS
Horn. 2. 302-6
A longer homily on this same subject may be found in Morris,
Legends of the Holy Rood (London, 1871), pp. 3-17, ^nd both may
be compared with the Old English Elene. See Stevens, The Cross
in the Life and Literature of the Anglo-Saxons (Xew York, 1901), and
The Dream of the Rood, ed. Cook (Oxford, 1905).
Dearly beloved, we commemorate to-day the holy cross
on which our Lord suffered, for on this day it w^as mani-
fested unto men. Jerome, the wise priest, wrote in the
book which we call Ecclesiastica Historia ^ that there was
a Roman emperor named Constantine, who was upright in
morals and virtuous in deeds, a supporter of Christians, but
not yet baptized. A bloodthirsty general, named Maxentius,
warred against him with a great host, wishing to deprive
him of his life and kingdom. In great anxiety the Emperor
set forth with an army, looking often toward heaven, and
earnestly imploring divine aid. Then in a dream he saw
in the resplendent east, gloriously shining, the sign of the
Lord's cross, and angels, whom he saw, said unto him :
'Emperor Constantine, with tliis sign do thou overcome
thine enemies.' Then he awoke, rejoicing because of the
vision and the promised victory, and he marked on his
head and on his standard the holy sign of the cross, to
the honor of God. He also commanded a httle cross of
pure gold to be forged, wliich he carried in his right hand,
earnestly beseeching the Almighty Lord that his right hand
might never be stained with the red blood of the Roman
people, to whom he would grant every favor if Maxentius
alone, who held the city with hostile intent, would submit
1 Rather Rufinus' (ca. 345-410) free and interpolated translation of
Eusebius' (ca. 260-ca. 340) Ecclesiastical History. This passage is from
Book 9, chapter 9.
176 ^LFRIC AND THE HOMILISTS
to him. Then with great treachery Maxentius ordered that
the river should be completely bridged over with ships,
which were then to be planked like any other bridge, so
that the emperor could go on it; but that which he intended
for the other happened to himself. The miscreant departed
by himself from the city, and commanded the army to ride
after him, in his great joy forgetting, at the moment, the
false bridge which he had ordered laid, and riding to it
alone at tremendous speed. The ships separated and went
to the bottom, horse and all, but the army stopped, saved
from danger by his sole death. Thus was fulfilled the
prayer of the emperor that his hand, which held the cross,
might not be stained with the outpoured blood of his own
citizens. Then all the people greatly rejoiced that they
could return in safety to the city ; they then received the
emperor according to custom, and he victoriously took pos-
session of liis throne, being baptized in Christ, who had
protected his people.
His mother was a Christian,^ Helena by name, a true
behever and extremely devout. With perfect faith she
went to Jerusalem, seeking to find the cross upon which
Christ had suffered. She went to the place wliich God
had indicated by means of a heavenly sign, and found
three crosses, one being that of Jesus, and the others
those of the thieves. However, she did not know which
was the cross of Christ, until He revealed it by signs.
Then the queen rejoiced greatly that she was permitted
to find this treasure in the earth, and through signs to
recognize it. On the place of execution, where the cross
lay, she erected a church to the dear Lord; and she en-
closed a part of the cross in white silver, taking the rest
1 From Rufinus' own Ecclesiastical History, a continuatiou of Eusebius,
1. 7. 8.
SELECTIONS FROM CLERIC 177
of it, together with the iron nails which had been driven
through Christ's hands when He was made fast, to her son.
Thus did Jerome, the wise expositor, write concerning
the way in wliich the holy cross was found. If any one
relates otherwise, we refer to him.
Christian men should certainly bow to the sacred cross
in the name of Jesus, for although we have not the one
upon which He suffered, yet its image is, nevertheless,
holy, and to that we ever bow in prayer to the mighty
Lord who suffered for men. And the cross is a memorial
of His great passion, holy through Him, although it grew
in a forest. We ever honor it to the glory of^ Christ, who
through it redeemed us with love, for which we give thanks
unto Him evermore, so long as we live.
13. A COLLOQUY
Wright-Wtilker, Vocabularies 1. 88-103
This was a device for teaching English boys Latin. The Latin
was first written, and then the English meanings over the Latin
words, forming an interlinear gloss. This was a late application
of a method practised under the Roman Empire, where it was
necessary for officials and important subjects to know something
of at. least two languages, Greek and Latin — in the case of
Orientals besides their own. Sometimes the conversation and its
translation would be written in parallel columns, as in the inter-
esting example given in Wilamowitz-Mollendorf, Griecliisclies
Lesebuch, pp. 400-402, from which an extract in Latin is subjoined:
' Proficiscor ad scholam; intravi; dixi "Ave, magister"; et
ipse me deosculatus est et resalutavit. Tradit mihi puer mens
tabellas, thecam, stilum'; produco graphium meo loco sedens ;
deleo ; describo ad exemplar, ut scripsi autem, ostendo magistro ;
emendavit, induxit ; jubet me legere ; jussus alii dedi ; ediscebam
interpretamenta ; reddidi. << Sed statim dicta mihi." Dictavit
mihi condiscipulus. '< Et tu " inquit. Dixi ei " Redde primum."
Et dixit mihi " Non vidisti cum redderem prius te? " '
178 yELFRIC AND THE HOMILISTS
Pupils
Pupil. We children beg you, teacher, to show us how
to speak Latin correctly, for we are ignorant, and speak
inaccurately.
Teacher. What do you wish to talk about ?
Pupil. Wliat do we care what we talk about, if only it
be correctly spoken and useful, not trivial or base ?
Teacher. Do you wish ,$o be flogged in your studying?
Pupil. We would rather be flogged for the sake of
learning than be ignorant, but we know that you are gentle,
and will not inflict blows upon us unless we force you to
do so.
Teacher. I ask you what you will say to me ? — What
is your work ?
Pupil. I am by profession a monk, and every day I
sing seven hour-services with the brethren, and am occu-
pied with reading and singing ; nevertheless, during the
intervals I should like to learn to speak Latin.
Teacher. Wliat do these your companions know ?
Pupil. Some of them are plowmen, some shepherds,
some oxherds ; others, again, are hunters, some are fisher-
men, some fowlers ; then there are merchants, shoemakers,
salt-workers, and bakers.
Plowman
Teacher. What have you to say, plowman ? How do
you carry on your work ?
Plowman. 0 master, I work very hard ; I go out at
dawn, drive the oxen to the field, and yoke them to the
plow. There is no storm so severe that I dare to hide at
home, for fear of my lord, but when the oxen are yoked.
SELECTIONS FROM ^LFRIC 179
and the share and coulter have been fastened to the plow,
^I must plow a whole acre or more every day.
Teacher. Have you any companion ?
Plowman. I have a boy to urge on the oxen with a
goad; he is now hoarse on account of the cold and his
shouting.
Teacher. What else do you do during the day ?
Plowman. I do a good deal more. I must fill the bins
of the oxen with hay, water them, and carry off their
dung.
Teacher. Oh ! oh ! the labor must be great 1
Plowman. It is indeed great drudgery, because I am
not free.
Shepherd
Teacher. What have you to say, shepherd? Have you
any work ?
Shepherd. Indeed I have. In the early morning I drive
my sheep to their pasture, and in heat and cold I stand
over them with dogs, lest wolves devour them. And I
lead them back to their folds, and milk them twice a day ;
besides this, I move their folds, and make cheese and
butter, and I am faithful to my lord. . . .
Hunter
Hunter. I am a hunter.
Teacher. Whose ?
Hunter. The king's.
Teacher. How do you carry on your work ?
Hunter. I weave my nets, and put them in a suitable
place, and train my hounds to pursue the wild beasts until
they come unexpectedly to the nets, and are thus entrapped,
and then I slay them in the nets.
180 ^LFRIC AJ^D THE HOMILISTS
Teacher. Can you not hunt except with nets ?
Hunter. Yes, I can hunt without nets.
Teacher. How ?
Hunter. I pursue wild beasts with swift hounds.
Teacher. What wild beasts do you chiefly take ?
Hunter. I take harts, and boars, and does, and goats,
and sometimes hares.
Teacher. Did you hunt to-day ?
Hunter. I did not, because it is Sunday, but yesterday
I went hunting.
Teacher. What did you take ?
Hunter. Two harts and a boar.
Teacher. How did you capture them ?
Hunter. The harts I took in nets, and the boar I slew.
Teacher. How did you dare to kill a boar ?
Hunter. The hounds drove him to me, and, standing
opposite him, I slew liim suddenly.
Teacher. You were very bold.
Hunter. A hunter should not be afraid, because many
sorts of wild beasts live in the woods.
Teacher. What do you do with your game ?
Hunter. I give the king what I take, for I am his
hunter.
Teacher. What does he give you ?
Hunter. He clothes and feeds me well, and sometimes
he gives me a horse or a ring, that I may the more willingly
pursue my trade. . . .
Fisherman
Teacher. What fish do you catch ?
Fisherman. Eels and pike, minnows and burbots, trout
and lampreys, and whatever swims in the rushing stream.
Teacher. Why do you not fish in the sea ?
SELECTIONS FROM ^LFRIC 181
Fisherman. Sometimes I do, but rarely, because a large
ship is necessary on the sea.
Teacher. What do you catch in the sea ?
Fisherman. Herring and salmon, dolphins and sturgeons,
oysters and crabs, mussels, winkles, cockles, flounders,
soles, lobsters, and many such things.
Teacher. Would you like to catch a whale ?
Fisherman. Not I.
Teacher. Wliy not ?
Fisherman. Because it is a dangerous thing to catch a
whale. It is safer for me to go to the river with my ship
than to go with many ships to hunt whales.
Teacher. Why?
Fisherman. Because I prefer to take a fish that I can kill
rather than one which with a single stroke can swallow
up and destroy not only me but also my companions.
Teacher. Nevertheless, many take whales without dan-
ger, and receive a large price for them. . . .
Fowler
Fowler. In many ways I entice birds — with nets, with
nooses, with lime, with whistling, with a hawk, or with
traps.
Teacher. Have you a hawk ?
Fowler. I have.
Teacher. Can you tame them ?
Fowler. Yes, I can. What good would they do me if I
did not know how to tame them ?
Hunter. Give me a hawk.
Fovjler. So I will gladly, if you will give me a swift
hound. Which hawk will you have, tlie bigger one or the
smaller ?
182 ^LFRIC AND THE HOMILISTS
Hunter. Give me the bigger one.
Teacher. How do you feed your hawks ?
Fowler. They feed themselves and me in the winter, and
in the spring I let them fly to the woods ; then in the
autumn I take young ones for myself, and tame them.
Teacher. And why do you let the tamed ones fly away
from you ?
Fowler. Because I do not wish to feed them in summer,
for they eat a great deal.
Teacher. Yet many feed the tamed ones through the
summer, in order to have them ready again.
Fowler. Yes, so they do, but I will not go to so much
trouble for them, because I can get others — not one, but
many more.
Merchant
Teacher. Wliat have you to say, merchant ?
Merchant. I say that I am useful to king and to ealdor-
men, to the wealthy, and to the whole people.
Teacher. And how so ?
Merchant. I go aboard my ship with my wares, and row
over parts of the sea, selling my goods, and buying precious
things which cannot be produced in this country. Then,
with great peril on the sea, I bring them here to you.
Sometimes I suffer shipwreck, and lose all my things,
scarce escaping with my life.
Teacher. What things do you bring us ?
Merchant. Purple garments and silks ; precious gems
and gold ; strange ^ raiment and spice ; wine and oil ;
ivory and brass ; copper and tin ; sulphur and glass, and
many such things. . . .
1 The Latin has ' varias,' however.
SELECTIONS FROM ^LFRIC 183
Shoemaker
Shoemaker. I buy hides and skins, and prepare them
by means of my art, making of them foot-wear of various
kinds — slippers, shoes, and gaiters ; bottles, reins, and
trappings ; flasks and leathern vessels, spur-straps and
halters, bags and purses ; and not one of you could pass
a winter except for my trade. . . .
Counselor
Teacher. Monk, you who are speaking with me, I have
convinced myself that you have companions who are good
and very necessary — but who are these ?
Pupil. Smiths — a blacksmith, a goldsmith, a silver-
smith, a coppersmith — and a carpenter, besides workers
at many other kinds of trades.
Teacher. Have you any wise counselor ?
Pupil. Certainly I have. How can our assembly be
ruled without a counselor ?
Teacher. What do you say, wise man, w^hich of these
trades seems to you the greatest ?
Counselor. I tell you, the service of God seems to me
to hold the chief place among these occupations, even as
it is written in the gospel, ' Seek ye first the kingdom of
God and His righteousness, and all these tilings shall be
added unto you.' ^
Teacher. And which of the secular occupations appears
to you to hold the supremacy ?
Cotmselor. Agriculture, because the farmer feeds us all
The cotmselor says : 0 comrades and good workmen,
let us speedily quell these disputes, and let there be peace
1 Matt. 6. 33.
184 iELFRIC AND THE HOMILISTS
and concord among us, and let each one benefit the rest
in his own trade, and always agree with the farmer, at
whose hands we obtain food for ourselves and fodder for
our horses. And this advice I give to all workmen, that
each of them zealously pursue his own trade, since he who
forsakes his occupation is himself forsaken by his occupa-
tion. Whosoever thou art, whether priest, or monk, or
layman, or soldier, practise ^/hyself in this, and be what
thou art, because it is a great disgrace and shame for a
man not to be willing to be that which he is, and that
which he ought to be. . . .
Pupils
Teacher. I ask you why you are so eager to learn ?
Pupil. Because we do not wish to be like stupid animals
that know nothing but grass and water.
Teacher. And what do you wish ?
Pupil. We wish to be wise.
Teacher. In what wisdom ? Do you wish to be crafty
or Protean, subtle in deceit, shrewd of speech, guileful,
speaking good and thinking evil, given to soft words, nour-
ishing fraud within yourselves, like a whited sepulchre,
beautiful without, but within full of all uncleanness ? ^
Pupil. We do not wish to be wise like that, for he is
not wise who deceives himself with pretenses.
Teacher. But how would you be wise ?
Pupil. We wish to be simple, without hypocrisy, so
that we may turn from evil and do good ; however, you
are speaking to us more profoundly than our years can
comprehend. Speak to us in our own way, not so deeply.
Teacher. I will do just as you say. Boy, what have
you done to-day?
1 Cf . Matt. 23. 27.
SELECTIONS FROM ^LFRIC 185
Pupil. I have done many things. In the night, when
I heard the bell, I arose from my bed and went to church,
and sang nocturns with the brethren, after which we sang
of all saints and lauds, and after this, prime and seven
Psalms, with the litany and the first mass. Then we sang
terce, and did the mass for the day, after which we sang
sext, and ate, and drank, and slept. Then again we arose
and sang nones, and now we are here before you, ready to
hear what you will say to us.
Teacher. When will you sing evensong and compline ?
Pupil. Wlien it is time.
Teacher. Were you flogged to-day?
Pupil. I was not, for I carefully restrained myself.
Teacher. And how about your companions ?
Pupil. Wliy do you ask me that ? I dare not reveal
our secrets to you. Every one knows whether he was
flogged or not.
Teacher. What do you eat during the day?
Pujjil. As yet I feed on meat, for I am a child living
under the rod.
Teacher. What else do you eat ?
Pupil. Herbs, eggs, fish, cheese, butter, and beans, and
all clean things, I eat with great thankfulness.
Teacher. You are extremely voracious, since you eat
everything that is set before you.
Pupil. I am not so voracious that I can eat all kinds of
food at one meal.
Teacher. How then ?
Pupil. Sometimes I eat one food, and sometimes another,
w4th moderation, as befits a monk, and not with voracity,
for I am no glutton.
Teacher. And what do you drink?
Pupil. Ale if I have it, or water if I have no ale.
186 ^LFRIC AND THE HOMILISTS
Teacher. Do you not drink wine?
Pupil. I am not so rich that I can buy wine, and wine
is not a drink for children or the foolish, but for the old
and the wise.
Teacher. Where do you sleep ?
Pupil. In the dormitory with the brethren.
Teacher. Yf[\o awakens you for nocturns ?
Pupil. Sometimes I hear the bell, and arise ; sometimes
my master sternly arouses me with the rod.
14. FRAGMENT OF A HOMILY ON THE FALSE GODS
Annaler for Nordisl: Oldkyndighed (Copenhagen, 1846), pj). 68-81
The latter part of this homily, the account of the false gods,
is printed by Keinble, Salomon and Saturnus, pp. 120-5. A some-
what different recension may be found in Wulfstan, ed. Napier,
pp. 104-7.
Beloved brethren, divine Scripture teaches us the wor-
ship of one true God, in these words, 'There is one Lord,
one faith, one baptism, one God and Father of all, who is
above all, and through all, and in you all.^ Of Him are all
things, and through Him are all things, and in Him are all
thmgs ; to whom be glory for ever. Amen.' ^
The Almighty Father begat a Son of Himself, without
intercourse of woman, and by the Son He made all crea-
tures, both seen and unseen. The Son is just as old as the
Father, for the Father was always without beginning, and
the Son was always begotten of Him without beginning;
as mighty as the Father. The Holy Ghost is not begotten,
but is the Will and the Love of the Father and the Son,
of them both alike ; and by the Holy Ghost are quickened
aE creatures that the Father created by His Son, who is
1 Eph. 4. 5. 2 Cf. Rom. 11. 36.
SELECTIONS FROM CLERIC 187
His Wisdom. The Holy Trinity is one Almighty God, ever
without beginning and end. They are three in name —
Father, Son, and Holy Ghost — but they are not three
Gods ; these three are one Almighty God, inseparable, for
in these three there is one nature, one mtelligence, and
one energy in all things, and it is better for us to believe
truly in the Holy Trinity, and to confess it, than to wonder
too much about it.
This Trinity created the bright angels, and then Adam
and Eve as human beings, giving them dominion over
earthly creatures. And they might have lived forever,
without death, if they had never broken that one com-
mandment of God. Adam then dwelt in happiness, free
from care, and no creature could harm him so long as he
kept the heavenly behest. No fire hurt him, though he
stepped into it, nor could water drown the man, even if
he suddenly ran into the waves. Neither could any wild
beast injure him, nor did any reptile dare do him harm
by biting him. No more could hunger, nor thirst, grievous
cold, nor extreme heat, nor sickness afflict Adam in the
world, so long as he kept that little commandment with
faith. But when he had sinned and broken God's behest,
he lost happiness, and lived in toil, so that lice and fleas
boldly bit him wdiom formerly not even the serpent had
dared to touch. Then he had to beware of water and of
fire, and to be on the watch lest harm befall him, and to
provide food for liimself by his own toil. Moreover, the
natural gifts with which God had endowed him he had to
guard with great care in order to keep them. Even so the
good do still, they who with toil keep themselves from sins.
The sun also, and likewise the moon, were deprived of
their fair light after Adam's guilt, though not of their own
deserts. The sun had been seven times briohter before
188 ^LFRIC AND THE HOMILISTS
man sinned, while the moon had the light which the sun
now gives us.^ Nevertheless, after the Day of Judgment
they shall again have their full light with which they
were created. And the moon shall not grow old, but shall
shine undiminished, even as the sun does now.
With much effort men may bring it to pass that they
dwell with God in eternal happiness after the Day of
Judgment, for ever without death, if in their deeds they
now obey His commandments. But those who deny God
shall be plunged into hell, into everlasting punishments
and endless torments.
Now we do not read in Scripture that men set up idol-
atry during any of the time before Noah's flood, and not
until the giants made the wonderful tower after Noah's
flood, and God gave them as many tongues as there were
workmen.^ Then they separated and went into distant
lands, and mankind increased. Then they were taught by
the old devil who had formerly deceived Adam, and they
wickedly fashioned gods for themselves, forsaking the Cre-
ator who had made them men. And they considered it
the part of wisdom to worship as gods the sun and the
moon, because of their resplendent light, and offered them
gifts, neglecting their Creator. Some men also said of the
bright stars that they were gods, and willingly worshiped
them. Some believed in fire, for its quick burning, some
also in water, and worshiped these as gods ; wliile others
believed in the earth, since it nourishes all things. But
they might have discerned, if they had had the sense, that
there is one God who created all things for men's use,
through His great goodness. Creatures do just as their
Creator taught them, and can do nothing but the will of
the Lord, for there is no Creator save the one true God.
1 See Isa. 30. 20. 2 Qen. 6. 1 ff . ; 11. 1 ff .
SELECTIONS FROM CLERIC 189
And we worship Him with firm faith, saying with our
lips, and in all sincerity of mind, that He alone is God
who created all things. Yet the heathen would not be
satisfied with so few gods, but began to worship as gods
various giants, and men ^ who, though they lived shame-
fully, were powerful in w^orldly affairs, and terrible in
their lives.
There was a man hving in the island of Crete, wdiose
name was Saturn,^ so violent and cruel that he devoured
his sons w^hen they were born, in an unfatherly manner
making their flesh food for himself. Yet he left one alive,
though he had previously devoured the brothers. This
one was called Jove, malignant and mighty. He drove his
father out of the aforesaid island, and would have slain
him had he approached. This Jove was so licentious that
he married his sister, who was named Juno, a very great
goddess. Their daughters were Minerva and Venus, both
of whom the father foully debauched; and many of his
kinswomen he also infamously defiled. These wicked men
were the greatest gods that the heathen worshiped and
converted into gods. The son, however, was more wor-
shiped in their foul idolatry than was the father. This
Jove was the most venerable of all the gods whom the
heathen in their error had ; ^ among certain nations he
was called Thor,* most beloved of the Danish people. His
son was named Mars, who continually made dissensions,
and stirred up calumnies and misery. The heathen wor-
shiped him as a great god ; and as often as they marched
1 This is the doctrine named from Euhemerus (ca. 300 B.C.), and fol-
lowed by various eai-ly Christian apologists. Cf . Tertullian, Ad Nat. 12, 13 ;
Apol. 10 ; Lactantius, Inst. Div. 1. 8-15 ; Augustine, De Civ. Dei 18. 8, 12, 13.
2 Cf. ^Ifric, Lives of Saints, ed. Skeat, 1. 126; Boethius, ed. Sedgefield,
115. 27-8; 195.47-9.
3 See Boethius, ed. Sedgefield, 115. 23-7; 194. 35 ff.
* See .^Ifric, Lives of Saints 2. 265.
190 yELFRIC AND THE IIOMILISTS
out, or decided to fight, they offered' their sacrifices in ad-
vance to this god, believing that he could aid them greatly
in battle, since he loved battle.
There was a man named Mercury while he lived, very
crafty and deceitful in deeds, loving thefts and falsehood.
The heathen made him a powerful god, offering him gifts
at the meeting of the ways, and bringing him sacrifices on
the high hills. This god was honored among all the
heathen ; in Danish he is called Odin.
A certain woman was named Venus, tlie daugliter of
Jove, so vile in lust that her father and also her brother had
her as a harlot, as did also some others ; yet the heathen
honor her as a great goddess, as the daughter of their god.
Many other gods, and also goddesses, were devised in vari-
ous ways, and held in great honor throughout the whole
world, to the ruin of mankmd ; but these, notwithstanding
their shameful lives, must be reckoned the principal ones.
The artful devil who lurks about men led the heathen into
the great error of taking for gods foul men who loved
sins that please the devil, and brought it to pass that their
worshipers also loved their filthiness, and were estranged
from Almighty God, who loathes sin and loves purity.
They also appointed a day for the sun and the moon,
and for the other gods, giving to each his day ^ — Sunday
to the sun, Monday to the moon ; the third day they de-
voted to Mars, their battle-god, that he might aid them.
The fourth day they gave, for their own advantage, to the
aforesaid Mercury, their great god. The fifth day they
solemnly consecrated to Jove, the greatest god. The sixth
day they appomted for the shameless goddess called Venus
— Frigg in Danish. To the ancient Saturn, father of the
1 Probably this device was of Babylonian origin (see Encycl. By'it.
2.740-1; 4.664-5; 21. 126). ■
SELECTIONS FROxM .ELFRIC 191
gods, they gave, for their own profit, the seventh day,i the
last of all, though he was the oldest.
Wishing to pay the gods still more honor they bestowed
on them stars, as if they had dominion over them — the
seven heavenly bodies, the sun and the moon, and the five
others which always move toward the east, against the
firmament, but which the heaven always turns back. Yet
the stars shone in the heavens at the beginning of the world,
before the wicked gods were born, or chosen as divinities.
15. FROM THE CANONS
Ancient Laws and Institutes of England , ed. Thorpe, p. 445
On Sundays and mass-days the priest shaU tell the
people in English the meaning of the gospel, and explain
also the Paternoster and the Creed as often as he can, as
a stimulus to men, that they may know the faith and keep
their Christianity. Let the teacher take heed against that
which the prophet says, ' They are all dumb dogs, they can
not bark.' 2 We ought to bark, and to preach to laymen, lest,
for want of instruction, they should perish. In His gospel
Christ hath said of unwise teachers, ' If the blind lead the
blind, both shall fall into the ditch.' ^ A teacher is blind if
he knows not book-learning, and if he deceives laymen
through his lack of knowledge. "VMierefore be on your
guard against this, even as you have need.
16. FROM THE EPISTLE FOR WULFSTAN
Ancient Laics and Institutes of Enriland, ed. Thorpe, p. 461
Beloved, ye priests should be provided with books and
with vestments, even as becomes your order. A priest
should have, in particular, a missal, books of hymns,
1 Cf . ^Ifric, Horn. 1. 216 ; 2. 260, 354. 2 isa. 56. 10. 3 Matt. 15. 14.
192 iELFRIC AND THE HOMILISTS
lectionaries, Psalter, manual, penitential, and calendar,
and these must be very correct. And he shall have clean
vestments for Christ's services. And you should sing
Sunday matins and mass matins, always nine responses
with nine readings.
And know this, that every chalice should be wrought of
molten material, of gold or of silver, of glass or of tin ; let
it not be of horn, and especially not of wood. Let no man
celebrate mass with any other vessel than the chaHce which
is consecrated to Christ ; and let His altar be clean and
always well covered, not polluted with filth; and let no
man ever celebrate mass without wine.
Be careful also now, I pray, that ye be better and wiser
in your spiritual calling in Christ's service, as it is rightly
fitting that ye should be, than secular men are in their
secular occupations. Long must he study who is to teach,
and if he will not learn to be a teacher of right wisdom
he shall afterwards be a teacher of great error, as Christ
Himself said in His gospel, ' If the blind lead the bhnd,
both shall fall into the ditch.' That guide who has to teach
God's people is blind if he neither have learning nor be
willing to learn, but misleads his parishioners and himself
with them. Mary W. Smyth
WULFSTAN^
Wulfstan, the most considerable Old English preacher next to
-^Ifric, was Bishop of London at least as early as 1001, and in
the following year was made Archbishop of York, as well as
Bishop of Worcester. He was a witness to two gifts of King
^thelred, one occasion being in 1004 ; he consecrated the church
at Assandim (1020), erected to commemorate Cnut's victory
over Edmund Lonside at that place (1016) ; and he consecrated
vEgelnoth as Archbishop of Canterbury in the same year, 1020.
He died at York, May 28, 1023.
AVULFSTAX 193
Wulfstan lived in the third of the three periods of Danish in-
vasion, the first (787-835) being, according to Freeman (^Norman
Conquest 1. 44-5) that of simple plunder, the second (^55-97)
that of settlement, while the third (980-1016) was that 6i X3olit-
ical conquest. A table of dates and events will throw light upon
Wulfstan 's homily below :
991. Battle of Maldon (see Select Translations from Old English
Poetry, pp. 31 ff.). King ^thelred purchases peace from the
Danes.
992. Desertion of Ealdorman ^Elfric, commander of the fleet.
994. Swend and Olaf Tryggvason besiege London, and ravage
Essex, Kent, Sussex, and Hampshire. Peace purchased.
1002. ^thelred orders a massacre of all the Danes in England.
1003. Swend captures Exeter. Treachery of Hugh, a Frenchman,
reeve of the city. Renewed treachery of Ealdorman ^Elfric.
1005. The worst famine in England that any one could remember.
1006. Kent and Sussex ravaged. The English army melts away
without striking a blow.
1007. Tribute paid to the Danes.
1009. Wulfnoth, a captain in the English fleet, flees with twenty
ships. Eighty more, sent to capture him, are destroyed in a
storm.
1010. Treachery of Ealdorman Eadric, preventing an attack on
the Danish fleet under Thurkill.
1011. The worst year of all. Sixteen shires are ravaged, defense
being futile.
1013. Swend and Cnut sail up the Humber, receive the submission
of all England north of Watling Street, the South assenting.
1014. Wulfstan 's Sermon to the English. ""
1016. King ^thelred dies, after his return from Normandy,
whither he had fled. Cnut contests the kingdom with Edmund
Ironside. Death of Edmund.
The homilies of Wulfstan have not been perfectly distinguished
from those of others. Kinard (Studg of Wulfstan's Homilies, Bal-
timore, 1897), the latest investigator, accepts fifteen homilies as
genuine, and finds nine others which exhibit certain character-
istics of his style (p. 60). Napier's edition, Berlin, 1883, is the
standard; our homily is No. 33 (pp. 156-67). It was first pub-
lished by Elstob in 1701 as Sermo Lupi Episcopi, and may be
194 ^LFRIC AND THE HOMTLISTS
found in Ebeling's (1847), Rieger's (1861), and Sweet's (1876)
Readers. See Wlllker, O'rundriss, pp. 48l-o, and Kinard (as above) ,
from whom many of our facts are drawn. The Old English
Chronicle for the f)eriod may be consulted with advantage.
Wulf Stan's style is marked by much alliteration and assonance,
and by a decided rhj^thm, with balanced clauses ; on the other
hand, he has almost no tropes or similes.
WULFSTAN'S SERMON TO THE ENGLISH
AT A TIME WHEN THE DANES ESPECIALLY PERSECUTED THEM,
WHICH WAS IN THE YEAR 1014 FROM THE INCARNA-
TION OF OUR LORD JESUS CHRIST
Dearly beloved, understand the truth : this world is in
haste, and drawing nigh the end. Hence is the later in the
world ever the worse, so that things must needs wax very
evil before the coming of Antichrist. Likewise, consider
earnestly that for these many years the devil has led this
people too widely astray ; that men have held little faith
towards one another, for all their fair speaking ; that mjus-
tice has too much prevailed in the land ; and that they have
been few who thought upon a remedy as diligently as they
ought. Daily has evil been heaped upon evil, and men
have worked iniquity and manifold unrighteousness far
too generally throughout this whole nation.
On account of tliese things we have suffered many
losses and indignities ; and if we are to expect any relief,
we must deserve it better at God's hands than we have
done hitherto. For with great deserts have we earned the
misery which lies over us; and with exceeding great
deserts we must obtain the cure from God, if our condition
is henceforth to become better. We know very well that
a wide breach demands much mending, and a great fire
abundant water if the fire is to be in any wise quenched.
WULFSTAN 195
The necessity is urgent upon every man henceforth to keep
God's law with dihgence, and fulfil God's commandments
with uprightness.
Among the heathen no man dares keep back either little
or much of that which is ordained for the worship of idols ;
but we too often everywhere withhold the dues of God.
Among the heathen, men dare not diminish any of those
tilings, within or without, which are brought to the idols
and appomted for a sacrifice ; but we have clean despoiled
the inward and the outward of God's house. Moreover,
the servants of God are everywhere deprived of reverence
and the right of giving sanctuary ; but the servants of idols
among the heathen, men dare in no manner offend, as men
now too generally offend the servants of God in places
where Christians ought to keep God's law and afford pro-
tection to His servants.
I tell you the truth — a remedy must be found. Too
long have the laws of God been declining on every side
among this people; the laws of the nation have lapsed
unduly ; sanctuaries lie too little protected ; and the
houses of God are clean despoiled of their ancient tribute,
and stripped within of all tilings seemly. Men of religion
have this long time been greatly despised ; widows wrong-
fully forced to marry ; poor and afflicted men betrayed
and grievously ensnared, and sold undeservedly far away
from tliis country, into the power of strangers; children
in the cradle enslaved, with bitter injustice, on pretense of
petty theft; freeman's right wrested away, thrall-right
restricted, alms-right greatly diminished. To sum up most
briefly, the laws of God are hated, and instruction despised.
For this we all suffer many indignities, as should be evi-
dent to every one ; and though men deem it not, the loss
will be common to all this nation, unless God shall save.
196 iELFRIC AND THE HOMILISTS
Surely it is plain and manifest, in the case of all of us,
that we have hitherto offended more than we amended ;
and for this cause our nation has endured many inroads.
This long time nothing has thriven at home or abroad, but
on every hand have been frequent ravaging and famine,
burning and bloodshed, robbery and slaughter, plague and
pestilence, murrain and disease. . Slander and malice and
rapine of robbers have sorely afflicted us ; tempests often-
times have blighted our harvests : because, it would seem,
for these many years this land has witnessed manifold
iniquities and unstable faith between men everywhere.
Many a time has kinsman protected his kinsman no more
than a stranger, nor father his son, nor, at times, son his
own father, nor one brother the other. No one of us has
directed his life as he ought, neither those in orders accord-
ing to the rules, nor laymen according to the law. No man
has purposed toward his neighbor so uprightly as he ought,
but well-nigh every one of us has betrayed and injured
his fellow in word and deed.
How wickedly has nearly every one attacked his neigh-
bor with shameful calumnies, and worse if he might I Here
in our land are great breaches of faith toward God and
man ; and many among us are traitors to their lords in
divers fashions. Worst of all treasons in the world it is
that a man should betray the soul of his lord ; and there
is also another very great treason in the world, that a man
should plot against his lord's life, or drive him livxig out of
the country ; and both these have been wrought in this land.
Edward men plotted against, and afterward murdered, and
then burned ; and ^thelred they drove from his home. Too
many sponsors and godchildren have been slain throughout
this nation ; too many holy places far and wide have per-
ished, because in the past certain men have been lodged
WULFSTAN 197
there, such as ought not to have been if reverence were to
be shown the sanctuary of God ; too many Christian folk
have been commonly sold into slavery. Ye may believe that
all this is hateful to God.
Yet more : we know too well where the wretched thing
has come to pass that a father has sold his son for a price,
or a son his mother and brothers into the power of strangers.
Whoever will may understand that all these are monstrous
and terrible deeds ; and still worse and more manifold
afflict this nation. Many are forsworn and liars ; pledges
are broken commonly ; and it is plain in this land that the
wrath of God lies bitterly upon us. He that can, let him
understand.
Alas, can greater shame befall any man, by God's anger,
than often befalls us for our just deserts — that if a thrall
escape from his lord, and forsake Christendom to go over
to the Danes, and it come about afterward that thane and
thrall meet in battle, then the thane, if he be foully slain
by the thrall, must lie without any wergild for his kinsmen ;
but if the thane foully slay the thrall whom he once owned,
he must pay wergild as for a thane. Degrading laws and
shameful tribute are wonted with us, because of God's anger,
as whoever is able may understand ; and a host of calami-
ties continually attack this nation.
This long time nothing has thriven at home or abroad,
but harrying and hatred have been constant on every hand.
The English have been long without victory and too sorely
dismayed, by reason of the wrath of God. The sea-robbers,
by God's permission, have been so strong that one of them
will often put to flight ten of us in battle — sometimes less,
sometimes more — and all because of our sins. Often ten
or twelve of them, one after another, will insult and shame- '
fully abuse the wife of a thane, or perhaps his daughter or
198 ^LFRIC AND THE HOMILISTS
kinswoman, he meanwhile looking on who thought him-
self proud and powerful and good enough before that came
to pass. Often a thrall puts in bonds the thane that was
his former lord, and makes him to be a thrall, by reason
of God's anger. Alas for the misery, alas for the dishonor
among the nations, wliich the English now endure ; and
all because of the wrath of our God ! Often two or three
vikings will drive the multitude of Christian men from sea
to sea, out through the provinces enslaved together, to our
common disgrace, if we would understand rightly in aught.
Yet for all the frequent reproach that we endure, we return
honor to them that abuse us. We continually reward them,
and they daily oppress us. They harry and smite, bind and
insult, spoil and raven, and carry away on shipboard ; and
lo, what in all these disorders is plain and manifest save
the wrath of God upon this nation ?
Nor is it any wonder if we are miserable, because we
know very well that for these many years men have seldom
recked what they wrought, in word or in deed. This our
religion, as it seems, has been greatly sinned against by
manifold sins and multiplied transgressions : by deeds fell
and foul, by covetousness and greed, by theft and robbery,
by wrongful selling of men into slavery, by heathen prac-
tices, by treasons and plots, by violations of law, by seditions,
by attacks of kinsman on kinsman, by manslaughter, by
injuries of holy men, by adulteries, incests, and divers forni-
cations. Thereto, as we said before, by violated oaths and
broken pledges, and various treacheries far and wide, more
than ought to be are ruined and forsworn. Breaches of
festivals are commonly committed. There are in this land
all too many adversaries of God, malignant persecutors of
the Church, and cruel tyrants in overgreat number ; proud
scorners of divine law and Christian practice, and foolish
WULFSTAN 199
mockers, most often of those things that most certainly
and rightfully belong to the law of God. Thereby has
grown up the common evil wont, that men are ashamed of
good deeds rather than of evil, because too often men con-
temn good deeds with derision, and overmuch revile God-
fearing men; and most men despise and greet with too
frequent insult such as love righteousness and have in any
measure the fear of God. Because men do thus, despising
all that they ought to glorify, and hatmg what they ought
to love, they pervert all too many to evil thoughts and acts,
so that they are not ashamed to sin greatly, and altogether
offend against God Himself ; yet because of empty words
of abuse they are ashamed to amend their misdeeds, as the
books teach : like fools, who, for their infirmity of pride,
will not save themselves until the time comes when they
cannot though they would.
But, oh, in God's name, let us do as is needful for us —
save ourselves as we may by utmost diligence, lest we perish
all of us together I Let us do as behooves us, turn toward
the right, and in some measure forsake the evil, and earnestly
amend those things wlierein we aforetime offended. Let us
love God and follow God's laws, and perform with eager-
ness that which we promised when we received baptism,
or those promised who were our sponsors in baptism ; and
let us rightly direct both words and works, and carefully
cleanse our hearts, and observe with heed oaths and pledges,
and have some faith amongst us, free from wicked practices.
Let us often meditate upon the Great Judgment whither
we all are bound, and save ourselves with zeal from the
raging fire of hell-torment, and secure for ourselves the
glory and gladness which God has prepared for such as
work His will upon earth. May God help us. Amen.
Elizabeth W. jNIanwauing
200 ^LFRIC AND THE HOMILTSTS
SELECTION EEOM THE BUCKLING HOMILIES
THE SIGNS OF THE LAST JUDGMENT
Horn, on Easter Day, pp. 91-5
These homilies receive their name from Blickling Hall, near
Aylsham, in Norfolk, where the manuscript is preserved. The
manuscript is dated a.d. 971, as appears from a passage in the
sermon for Ascension Day (Holy Thursday). The sole edition is
by Kichard Morris, for the Early English Text Society, London,
1880. The homily on the dedication of St. Michael's Church
contains a remarkable parallel (see Morris' edition, pp. vi, vii)
to Beowulf nbl^-U.
The Signs of the Judgment seem to have been derived from
2 (4) Esdras (see the English Apocrypha) 4. 52 f£., blended
with Matt. 24. 29-31 (Mark 13. 24, 25 ; Luke 21. 2.5) ; cf. Isa.
54. 4 ; Ezek. 32. 7 ; 38. 20 ; Dan. 12. 2, 3 ; 1 Cor. 15. 52 ; 1 Thess.
4. 16 ; 2 Pet. 3. 12 ; Rev. 6. 15, 16 ; 20. 12, 13.
Various Fathers of the Church deal with this subject, espe-
cially Ephrem Syrus (see Bousset, as below, p. 38), and Pseudo-
Hippolytus (HipjDolytus, ed. Bonwetsch and Achelis, 1^. 287-
309), in a treatise on The End of the World, chaps. 37 ff. (English
translation in Ante-Nicene Library 9. 98-130). Again by Lactantius,
Inst. Div. 7. 16, 19, w^hose account reposes upon a Greek acrostic
(Oracula Sibyllina, ed. Geffcken, 8. 217-250, pp. 153-7, from Con-
stantine the Great's Oration to the Assembly of the Saints, chap. 18),
a Latin translation of which is found in Augustine, De Civ. Dei
18. 23. In this acrostic the Fifteen Signs are clearly discernible.
In a passage assigned to Bede (^Works, Cologne edition, 3. 494) the
Fifteen Signs are enumerated, reference being made to Jerome, in
whom, however, no trace of the matter can be found. In the
Middle Ages there are many versions. In Old English it appar-
ently influenced Cynewulf 's Christ, and there is a homily on the
subject printed in the Bavarian Academy's Gelehrte Anzeigen 50
(1860). 350-5. The whole subject is treated by Nolle, with the
quotation of many important texts, in Paul und Braune's Beitrdge
6. 413-76, the English versions being listed on pp. 474-5. See
also Bousset, The Antichrist Legend (London, 1896), pp. 232-51.
BLICKLING HOMILIES 201
Let us now consider how much awe shall come upon
all creatures at this present time, when the Doom draws
near ; and the manifestation of the day shall be very ter-
rible to all creatures. On that day heaven, earth, and
sea, and all things that are therein, shall pass away. So
also on account of the same event the sun and moon
shall pass away, and all the light of the stars shall fail.
And the rood of our Lord, wliich now puts to flight
accursed spirits on the earth, shall be raised in the course
of the stars ; and on that day heaven shall be rolled up
like a book ; on that day earth shall be consumed to
ashes, and on that day the sea shall dry up, and all the
powers of heaven shall be turned and moved. And six
days before this day various marvelous tokens shall befall
each day. On the first day, at midday, a great lamen-
tation of all creatures shall take place, and men shall hear
a great noise in heaven, as of an army being gathered to-
gether and set in array there. Then shall ascend a great
bloody cloud from the north, and cover all this heaven ;
and after the cloud shall come lightning and thunder all
the day, and in the evening there shall rain a bloody
rain. On the following day there shall be heard in the
heavens a great sound of the arraying of armies ; and
earth shall be moved out of her place, and heaven shall
be open at one quarter — on the east; and at evening a
great host shall come forth from the open end, and obscure
and cover over the heavens ; and a bloody and fiery rain
shall endeavor to devour and consume this earth, and the
heaven shall fall to the four ends of the earth ; and all the
earth shall be overwhelmed with darkness at the eleventh
hour of the day. Then all folk shall say, ' The Lord have
mercy upon us and pity us, who was praised by means
of angels when He was born in Bethlehem : — then they
202 ^LFRIC AND THE HOMILISTS
cried and thus spake — " Glory be to God in heaven, and
to men on earth who are of good will." ' ^ On the third day
the earth on the north and east parts will speak to one
another, and the deep will rage and will devour the earth ;
and all the powers of the earth shall be changed, and great
earthquakes shall happen on that day. After the third
hour on the fourth day there shall be mighty thunders in
the heavens ; and then shall all idols fall down ; and then
it shall be at sunset, and yet no light shall appear ; and
the moon shall be quenched and darkness shall come upon
all the world, and the stars all day shall run across our
sight. And men may see them [the stars] as plainly as at
night when it freezes hard. And then on that day they
will hate this world's weal and the things that they now
love. On the fifth day at noon the heaven will burst
asunder from the east unto the west quarter; and then
all angelkind shall look through the aperture on mankind.
Then shall all men see what it will be at this world's end.
They shall flee then to the mountains and hide themselves
on account of the presence of the angels, and then shall
they speak to the earth, and beseech it to swallow them
up and hide them; and they will wish that they never
were born of father nor mother. So was it of yore prophe-
sied concerning this time in Christ's book, thus saying,
' Blessed are those that were barren, and blessed are the
wombs that have never brought forth, and the breasts
which have never given suck.' ^ And then shall they say
to the liills and to the mountains : * Fall upon us, and
cover and hide us,^ that we may no longer endure this
horror from these angels. Now is all manifested that we
previously had kept secret.' On the sixth day before the
third hour, from the four ends of the earth all the world
1 Lk. 2. 14. 2 Lk. 23. 29. 3 cf. Rev. C. 16.
BLICKLING HOMILIES 203
shall then be filled with accursed spirits, who will en-
deavor to take great spoil of men's souls, as Antichrist
previously did. And when he cometh, then will he threaten
to send those souls into eternal punishments who will not
obey him. And then at last he himself shall be driven
into everlastmg woe. So then on that day shall come Saint
Michael with a heavenly host of holy spirits, and shall
then slay all those accursed folk, and drive them into
hell's abyss for their disobeying of God's behests and for
their wickednesses. Then shall all creatures see our Lord's
power, though mankind now will not acknowledge or rec-
ognize it. Then after these things the seventh day will be
nigh at hand. And then Saint Michael the Archangel will
command the four trumpets to be blown at these four
quarters of the earth, and will raise up all bodies from the
dead, though they were previously hidden by the earth,
or drowned in the water, or devoured by wild animals,
or carried off by birds, or torn to pieces by fishes, or in
any wise departed from this world. All must rise again
then, and go forth to the Doom in such form as they
previously adorned themselves ; but not with gold nor
with purple garments, but with good and holy deeds we
must be adorned if we desire then to be on the right hand
of the Lord Jesus Christ, along with faithful and chosen
souls whom he will send into everlasting light.
RiCHAKD Morris
IV
LATE ANONYMOUS WOKKS
SELECTIONS FEOM APOLLONIUS OF TYRE
The Old English version of the romance of Apollr/nhjs of Tyre
was proVjably made about 1000 a.d. The original story was almost
certainly written in Greek, proVjably in the third centnrj' of our
era, and hj an imitator of Xenophon of Ephesus. This is lost,
and is only represented by a Latin version which may have been
made in the same century, and in any case not later than the
sixth, by a writer of no great education, who introduced Chris-
tian terms and conceptions, added some things, and retrenched
others. Over a hundred manuscripts, of this Latin version are
known, of which twelve are in England. The j»opularity of the
romance is also attested by the mediaeval and subsequent trans-
lations into everj^ modem language.
An abridgment of the Latin version found its way into the
Gesta Romanorum, as Xo. 1-53 of that collection. From Gower it
was borrowed by Shakespeare, or whoever was the author of
the drama which passes under his name, as the groundwork of
Pericles, Prince of Tyre, the name Pericles being perhaps adapted
from the ' Pyrocles ' of Sidney's Arcadia. The scenes of Pericles
which may be compared with our extract are 2. 1-3 and 2. -5.
The Old English ApoUonius was edited by Thorpe (London,
1834), and again by Zupitza (Herrig's Archiv, Vol. 97). It is only
a fragment, breaking off in the midst (the end of the present
selection), and recommencing near the end of the tale.
Further information will be found in Rohde's Der GriecMsche
Roman (2d ed., Leipzig, 1900); Teuffel's History of Latin Litera-
ture, §489; Hagen's Der Roman vom Konig ApoUonius von Tyrus
(Berlin, 1878); Warton's History of Enylisk Poetry 2. 302-3;
Riese's edition of the Latin (Leipzig, 1871), or Ring's (Leipzig,
1888) ; and Markisch's Die Altenglische Bearheitung der Erzdhlung
ron ApoUonius von Tyrus: Grammatik und Lateinischer Text (Berlin,
1899). Besides the Tudor versions, there is a translation in
Thorpe's edition, and another — of course not adhering closely
to the Old English text — in Swan's rendering of the Gesta
Ronianorum (Bohn Library).
207
208 LATE ANONYMOUS WORKS
THE SHIPWRECK
ApoUonius bade them all farewell, and went aboard his
ship. Now when they had begun to row, and were some-
what advanced on their journey, suddenly the sea's calm
was stirred up witliin the space of two hours, and a great
tempest arose, so that the sea smote the stars of heaven,
and the welter of the billows raged with the winds.
Moreover the northeast winds arose, and the fierce south-
west winds battled against them, until the ship went to
pieces in this dreadful storm. All of ApoUonius' com-
panions perished utterly, and he alone came in safety to
Pentapolis, in the land of Cyrene, and there climbed up
on the shore. There he stood naked on the beach, and
gazing at the sea cried out:
' 0 Neptune, ravager ^ of the sea, despoiler of man and
deceiver of the innocent ! Thou art more cruel than King
Antiochus. On my account hast thou maintained this
cruelty, that I, by thy means, should become destitute
and needy, so that the cruel king might the more easily
destroy me. Whither can I now turn ? what can I ask
for ? or who will give sustenance to an unknown man ? '
APOLLONIUS AND THE FISHERMAN
While he was thus reasoning with himself, suddenly he
saw a certain fisherman coming toward him, to whom he
turned and thus dolefully spake : ' Whoever thou art, old
man, have pity upon me ! Have pity upon me, naked and
shipwrecked as I am ! I was not born of lowly parentage ;
but that you may know to whom you show pity, I am
ApoUonius, Prince of Tyre.'
1 Supplied from the Latin prsedator.
SELECTIONS FROM APOLLONIUS OF TYRE 209
Then as soon as the fisherman saw that the young man
lay at his feet, he raised him up with compassion, led him
to his house, and set before him the food which he had to
offer him. And since he desired to show him still more
kindness, even to the best of his ability, he tore his cloak
in two, and gave half to Apollonius, saying, 'Take what I
have to give you and go into the city. Perchance you may
find some one who will show you kindness. If you find
no one, come hither again, and let my few possessions suf-
fice for us both ; and come and fish with me. Nevertheless
I adjure you,, if ever again by the goodness of God you
come to your former dignity, forget not my poor garment.'
Then said Apollonius : * If I do not remember you when
it is again well with me, may I once more suffer sliipwreck,
and not meet a second time with one like you.'
THE INCIDENTS IN THE GYMNASIUM
After these words he proceeded on the way which was
shown him until he came to the city gate, and there he
entered in. And while he was considering whom he should
ask for sustenance, he saw a boy running along the street,
clothed in a tunic only. He was anointed with oil and
girt with a hnen cloth, and carried in his hands games
such as youth are wont to play in the gymnasium. And
he cried with a loud voice, saying : ' Hearken, O citizens ;
hearken, 0 foreigners ; freeman and slave, noble and bur-
gess ! The gymnasium is open ! '
When Apollonius heard this, he took off the half-garment
that he was wearing, and went into the pool. And when
he saw them all at their exercise, he looked about for his
peer, but he could find none in the company. Then sud-
denly came Arcestrates, king of all that people, with a
210 LATE ANONYMOUS WORKS
great throng of his retainers, and entered the gymnasium.
And the king began to play ball with his companions.
Then Apollonius, as God ordained, joined in the king's
game ; he ran and caught the ball, and, hitting it with great
swiftness, sent it back to the king who was playing. He
threw it back again. Apollonius struck it instantly, not
allowing it to drop. The king then perceived the agility of
the youth, and knew that none was his equal in the game.
And he said to his companions : ' Get ye hence ; this youtli,
methinks, is my equal.'
When Apollonius heard the king praise liim, he straight-
way ran and drew near the king, and with skilled hand
threw the ball with such speed that it seemed to the king
as if he were transformed from an old man to a boy.^ And
after this he ministered most acceptably to the king on his
throne, and when Apollonius went out of the gymnasium
he led the king by the hand, and so departed the way he
had come.
Then after Apollonius had gone, the king said to his
retainers : ' I swear by our common salvation that I never
liad a better bath than I did to-day, because of the service
of that young man whom I know not.' And he turned to
one of his men and said : ' Go and find out who the young
man is who was so agreeable to me to-day.'
So the man went after Apollonius. But when he saw
that he was clothed in a squalid cloak, he returned to the
king and said : * The young man for whom you inquired is
a shipwrecked man.' Then said the king : ' How do you
know that ? ' The man answered and said : ' Even if he
should deny it himself, his clothes would betray him.'
1 The latter part of this sentence is due to a misunderstanding of the
Latin. The original refers to a kind of massage, and makes no reference
to ball-playing at this point.
SELECTIOXS FROM APOLLOXIUS OF TYRE 211
Then said the king : ' Go quickly and say to him, " The
king iavites you to his feast." '
APOLLOXIUS AT THE FEAST
"VVTien ApoUonius heard this, he obeyed, and went forth /
with the man until he arrived at the king's hall Then the > ^
man went in first to the king and said : ' The shipwrecked '
man for whom you sent is come, but he cannot, for shame,
enter without proper attire.' Then the king commanded
that he be clothed at once in seemly garments, and bade
him come in to the feast.
Then ApoUonius went in and sat down opposite the
king, in the seat appointed him. And the first course was
brought iu, and after it the royal banquet. ApoUonius, how-
ever, ate nothing, though aU the others ate and made merry,
but gazed upon the gold and sUver, and the costly ap-
parel, and the tables, and the royal service. "WTule he was
looking sorrowfully at aU these, a certain envious old noble-
man who sat next the king, seeing ApoUonius sit and gaze
so sorrowfuUy at everything and eat nothing, said to the
king : ' Good king, behold, the man whom you have so fa-
vored is very envious of your possessions.' Then said the
king : * A"ou are mistaken ; the young man is en\'ious of
nothing that he sees here, but rather shows that he has
suffered great loss.' Then King Ajcestrates, turning to
ApoUonius, said with cheerful countenance, * Yoimg man,
make merry with us, and trust in God that you may come
into fairer fortune.'
THE EXTRY OF THE PRLS"CESS
^\TiUe the king was speaking, his young daughter sud-
denly entered, and kissed her father and those about him.
But when she came to ApoUonius, she turned back to her
212 LATE ANONYMOUS WORKS
father and said : ' Good king and dearest father, who is
this young man who sits opposite you in so honorable a
place, and has so sorrowful a countenance ? I know not
what troubles him.' Then said the king : ' Dear daughter,
this young man has been shipwrecked, and he pleased me
best of all in my play to-day. Therefore I invited him to
this feast of ours. I know not who nor whence he is, but
if 3^ou would know who he is, ask him, for it is fitting
that you should know.'
Then the maiden went to Apollonius and said with
deference : ' Though you are silent and dejected, yet I per-
ceive your noble rank. Therefore, if it seem not too irksome
to you, tell me your name and relate me your misfortunes.' ^
Then said Apollonius : ' If you must needs ask me my name,
I reply that I lost it at sea ; if you will know of my noble
rank, know that I lost it at Tarsus.' The maiden said :
' Speak to me more plainly, that I may understand.' Then
Apollonius told her all liis adventures, and at the end of
his recital tears fell from his eyes.
When the king saw this, he turned to his daughter and
said: 'Dear daughter, you have done wrong in wishing
to know his name and his adventures. You have now
renewed his old sorrow ; so I bid you give him whatso-
ever you will.' When the maiden heard that her father
sanctioned what she would fain do herself, she said to
Apollonius : ' Apollonius, now indeed you are one of us ;
cease your sorrowing, and, since I have my father's leave,
I will make you rich.' Apollonius thanked her, and the
king rejoiced in his daughter's benevolence, and said to
her: 'Dear daughter, have your harp brought in, . . .^
and banish this young man's sadness.'
1 So Dido requests .Eneas to relate his adventures.
2 A clause not clear in the Old English.
SELECTIONS FROM APOLLONIUS OF TYRE 213
A LESSON IN MUSIC
Then she went out and had her harp brought in, and |
as soon as she began to play she accompanied the music
of the harp with winsome song. And all the courtiers
praised her for her skill in music, but Apollonius alone
remained silent. Then said the king : ' Apollonius, thou
dost wrong, since every one praises my daughter for her . ^ \
skill in music, and you alone censure her by your silence.' '*' '
Apollonius said : ' 0 good king, believe me when I say that
I see your daughter has indeed chanced upon some skill
in music, but she has never learned it thoroughly. But
now bid them give me the harp, and you will then realize
w^hat you do not.' King Arcestrates said: 'Apollonius, I
must acknowledge that thou art learned in all things.' |
Then the king bade them give the harp to Apollonius."^
And Apollonius went out and clothed himself, and set a
crown upon his head, and took the harp in his hand, and r
entered and stood before them in such wise that the king ^
and his courtiers thought that he was not Apollonius, but
Apollo, the heathen god. Then quiet and silence reigned
throughout the hall. And Apollonius took the plectrum
and touched the harp-strings with skill, and accompanied
the music of the harp with winsome song. And the king
himself and all present cried aloud and praised him. After
this, Apollonius put aside the harp and acted before them,
and performed many fair tilings wliich were unknown and
strange in that nation. And whatever he performed pleased
them all greatly.
Now when the king's daughter saw that Apollonius
was so well trained in all these accomplishments, she
fell in love with hun. And when the feast was at length
over, the maiden said to the king: 'Dear father, you gave
214 LATE ANONYMOUS WORKS
^ me permission, a little while since, to bestow upon Apol-
\ ^^ lonius whatever I wished from your treasury.' King Arces-
y^ h trates said to her : ' Give him what you will.' Then she
went out very blithely and said: < Master ApoUonius, I
give you, by my father's leave, two hundred pounds in gold,
and four hundred pounds in silver, and an abundance of
costly raiment, and twenty slaves.' And she said to the
slaves : ' Bring the things with you which I have promised
my master ApoUonius, and lay them in the banquet-hall
before my friends.' And they did even as the princess bade,
and all who saw her gifts praised them. Then the feast
came to an end, and all the people rose and saluted the
king and the princess, and bade them farewell, and went
home. And ApoUonius, too, said : ' Good king, pitier of the
poor, and princess, lover of learning, fare ye well ! ' He
then turned to the slaves whom the maiden had given
him, and said : ' Take the things which the princess has
given me, and let us go to our inn, and rest.'
APOLLONIUS AS TEACHER
But the maiden, fearing she might not see ApoUonius
hereafter as often as she wished, went to her father and
said : ' Good king, are you satisfied that ApoUonius, who
has been so enriched by us to-day, should go hence in this
manner, and that wicked men should come and rob him ? '
The king replied : ' You say weU. Bid him find a place
where he may repose with honor.' So the maiden did as
/ she was bidden, and ApoUonius received the dwelling ap-
I pointed him, and entering, thanked God, who had not de-
prived him of princely dignity and comfort. But the maiden
^ passed a restless night, inflamed with love of the words and
songs which she had heard from ApoUonius. And when
\^
SELECTIONS FROM APOLLONIUS OF TYRE 215
day came she could wait no longer, but as soon as it was
light went and sat beside her father's bed. Then said the
king : ' Dear daughter, wiiy are you thus wakeful ? ' The
maiden said : ' The accomplishments which I heard yester-
day have kept me awake. Now I pray you, therefore, give
me our guest Apollonius for a teacher.' And the king was
greatly pleased, and bade summon Apollonius, and said to
him : ' My daughter desires to have instruction from you
in the delightful arts wliich you possess ; if you will agree
to tliis, I swear to you by the wealth of my kingdom that
whatever you lost at sea I will restore to you on land.'
When Apollonius heard this he received the maiden as a
pupil, and taught her as well as he himself had learned. . . .
THE THREE SUITORS
It came to pass, some few days after tliis, that King
Arcesttates took Apollonius by the hand and went with him
out into the public square. And at length three learned and
noble men met them, who had long desired the king's daugh-
ter in marriage. All three together with one voice greeted
the king. The king, smiling, turned to them and said :
' What would you, that you greet me with one voice ? ' And
one of them answered and said : ' It is long ago that we
asked you for your daughter, and you have often tor-
mented us by postponing the matter. Therefore we have
come hither to-day together. We are your citizens, sprung
of noble blood ; now, we pray you, choose of us three which
you will have for a son-in-law.' Then said the king : ' You
have not chosen a seasonable time ; my daughter is at pres-
ent very busy with her studies, but that I may not seem to
keep deferring you, write your names and your marriage
portions on a tablet, and I will send the tablets to my
216 LATE ANONYMOUS WORKS
daughter, so that she herself may choose which one of you
she will.' The young men did so, and the king took the
tablets and sealed them with his ring, and gave them to
Apollonius, saying : ' Master Apollonius, if you do not ob-
ject, take these tablets and carry them to your pupil.' Ajid
Apollonius took the tablets and went to the royal hall.
THE PRINCESS CHOOSES
When the maiden saw Apollonius, she said: * Master,
why do you come thus alone ? ' Apollonius said : ' Lady,
... 1 take these tablets which your father sends you, and
read them.' The maiden took the tablets and read the
names of the three young men, but she did not find there
the name of the one she desired. When she had read the
tablets, she turned to Apollonius and said : ' Master, would
it not grieve you if I should choose a husband in this way ?'
Apollonius rephed : ' No, but I should rejoice, rather, that
you could yourself show in writing — by means of the learn-
ing which you have received from me — which of them
you desire. My wish is that you choose a husband where
you will.' But the maiden replied : ' Dear master, if you
loved me, you would be grieved.' After saying this, she
boldly wrote another tablet, sealed it, and gave it to Apol-
lonius. Apollonius took it out to the forum, and gave it
to the king. The tablet read as follows : * Good king and
dearest father, as you graciously give me leave to choose
the man I desire for a husband, I will tell you the truth ;
I choose the shipwrecked man ; and if you are surprised
that so modest a maiden should write thus forwardly, re-
member that I have confided to the wax, which knows no
shame, what I myself could not speak for shame.'
1 Phrase unintelligible.
i
SELECTIONS FROM APOLLONIUS OF TYRE 217
When the kmg had read the note through, he knew not
what shipwrecked man she meant. Therefore he turned to
the three young men and said : ' Which one of you has
been shipwrecked ? ' And one of them, whose name was
Ardahus, said : ' I have been shipwrecked.' Another an-
swered him and said : ' Be still ! Plague take you, so that
you be not sound nor whole 1 You have ever been my
companion in study, and have never been outside the city a \
gates without me. Wliere were you ever shipwrecked ? ' '
When the king could not find out wliich one of them had
been shipwrecked, he turned to Apollonius and said : ' Apol-
lonius, take this note and read it. Perhaps you, who were
present when it was written, may know what I do not.'
So Apollonius took the tablet and read it, and as soon as he
realized that it was he whom the maiden loved, he blushed.
When the king noticed this, he took Apollonius' hand, and
went with him some distance from the young men, and
said : ' Do you know the shipwrecked man ? ' Apollonius
said : ' Good king, if it be your will, I do know him.' And
when the king saw that Apollonius was covered with
blushes, he understood the remark, and said : ' Ptejoice,
rejoice, Apollonius, for my daughter desires only what I
wish myself. And, ti^uly, in matters of this kind, nothing
can happen but by God's will.' Arcestrates then turned to
the three young men and said: 'Rightly did I say to you
just now that you came at an unseasonable time for my
daughter; but when she can be released from her study I
will send you word.' So they went home with this answer, !^
and King Arcestrates kept hold of Apollonius' hand and
led him home with him, not as a guest, but as if he were his
son-in-law. But finally the king released his hand, and
went alone into his daughter's bower, and said : ' Dear
daughter, whom have you chosen for a husband ? ' The
218 LATE ANONYMOUS WORKS
maiden fell at her father's feet and said : ' Most gracious
father, hear your daughter's desire. I love the shipwrecked
man who was deceived by unkind fortune, but, lest you
doubt whom I mean, it is Apollonius that I desire, and if
you will not give him to me you will lose your daughter.'
The king could no longer endure his daughter's tears, but
raised her up and said to her : ' Beloved daughter, be m no
wise afraid, you have chosen a husband who pleases me
well.' Then he went out to Apollonius and said : ' Master
Apollonius, I have inquired into the desire of my daughter's
heart, and among other things she said, with tears : " You
swore to Apollonius that if he would be obedient to my
wish and teach me, you would restore to him whatever the
sea took from him. Now since he has been obedient to
your command and to my will, I will follow after him in
both my loviug and my learning." ' ^
Samuel B. Hemingway
THE HAREOWING OF HELL
The mediaeval doctrine of the harrowing of hell (cf , OE. hergian,
<■ to despoil '), apparently belongs, in its more elaborate form, to
the fourth century a.d., but although thus comparatively late
in its development, it was an important, popular, and wide-spread
belief. It depends ultimately on such passages of Scripture as
Ps. 24. 7-12 ; ^y'6. IS ; 107. 9 ff. ; Isa. 9. 2 ; Zech. 11. 11 ; Matt.
27. 52-3 ; 1 Pet. 3. 19 ; 4. 6 ; l)ut more important than any
of these, perhaps, is Eph. 4. 8-9 : < When He ascended up on
high, He led captivity captive. . . . Pie also descended first into
the lower parts of the earth.' Interesting traces of this belief
1 The OE. MS. breaks off at this point. According to the Latin version,
after the marriage of Apollonius he hears of the death of Autiochus, and
sets sail for Antioch. The story then continues much as in the Shake-
spearean Pericles, Acts 3-5. The OE. fragment recommences with the tale
many years later.
THE HARROWING OF HELL 219
remain in modern times in the statement of the Apostles' Creed,
' He descended into hell,' and in many Easter hymns.
Evidences of its effect upon earlier literature are innumerable.
See the Old English poem, The Harrowing of Hell ; the Christ of
Cynewulf, Part II ; the closing passage of The Bream of the Rood ;
and Blickling Homilies, pp. 85-9. Other references to OE., as well as
copious references to patristic literature, are given by Cook, The
Chist of Cynewulf pp. 130-1 (Boston, 1900) . For the effect of the
legend on later English and Continental literature, see Wtilker's
Das Evangelium Nicodemi in der Abendldndvichen Liter atur (Pader-
born, 1872). Perhaps the most interesting occurrences of the belief
appearing in Middle English literature are in the several mystery
plays on the subject.
Our extract is taken from an Old English version, dating prob-
ably from the eleventh century, of the Gospel of Nicodemiis, which
is probably the best-known of the New Testament apocryphal
books. The original Greek and Latin texts may be found in
Tischendorf 's Evangelia Apocrypha (Leipzig, 1853) ; English
translations in Cowper's Apocryphal Gospels (3d ed., London, 1870),
and by "Walker in The Ante-Nicene Fathers, vol. 8 (rev. Am. ed.,
Buffalo, 1886). The Old English text of the present extract is
printed by Bright in his Anglo-Saxon Reader, pp. 129-39. For
the connection of Enoch and Elijah with Antichrist, see Bousset's
Antichrist Legend, chap. 14.
Carinus and Leuticus wrote in this wise of the matter,
saying : ' Behold ! while we were with all our forefathers
in the depths of hell, there came a light into those murky
shades, so that we were all illumined and rejoiced. It was
suddenly as though the golden sun had been kindled in
our presence there, and shined upon us all; whereupon
Satan and all that raging host were sore afraid, and said :
" What is this light that sliineth so sudden upon us ? "
And straightway all the race of men there present, our
father Adam and all the patriarchs and prophets, rejoiced
at that great light, saying : " This is the Prince of the
Light eternal, even as God promised us that He would
220 LATE ANONYMOUS WORKS
send that Light eternal unto us." Then Isaiah the prophet
lifted up his voice and spake : " This is that Light proceed-
ing from the Father — even the Son of God — according
as I foretold on earth when I prophesied, saying that the
land of Zebulun and the land of Naphtali and the river
Jordan and the people that sat in darkness should see a
great hght, and they that dwelt in the land of the shades
should have light.^ And now it is come and shineth upon
us who formerly sat in the shadow of death." Then the
prophet Simeon spake unto them all as they rejoiced:
" Glorify Christ the Lord, the Son of God, whom I bore
into the temple in my arms, saying : ' Thou art a light and
a comfort before the face of all people, and the glory and
honor of thy people Israel.' " ^ And as Simeon spake
thus, all that company of saints were greatly rejoiced.
And thereafter there came as it were a clap of thunder,
and all the saints cried aloud, saying : " Who art thou ? "
And a voice answered them saying : " I am John, prophet
of the Most High, and I am come before Him to prepare
his way, and to promote the salvation of his people." ^
*And Adam, hearing this, spake unto his son named
Seth and said : " Eecount unto thy children and these
patriarchs whatsoever things thou heardest from the
archangel Michael when I sent thee to the gate of Para-
dise to bid the Lord send His angel with thee, and give
thee the oil from the tree of mercy that thou mightest
anoint my body therewith, what time I was grievous sick."
And Seth, the son of Adam, drawing near unto the holy
patriarchs and prophets, spake : " Behold, as I was beseech-
ing the Lord at the gate of Paradise, Michael the archangel
appeared unto me and said: *I am sent from God unto
thee, and I am appointed guardian over all human bodies.
1 Isa. 9. 1-2. 2 Lk. 2. 30 ff. 3 Lk. 1. 70-7.
THE HARROWING OF HELL 221
Now I say unto thee, 0 Seth, that it behooveth thee not to
labor with prayer and lamentation to beg the oil of the
tree of mercy, that thou mayst anoint therewith thy father
Adam for liis bodily disease, inasmuch as there are not
yet fulfilled the five thousand and five hundred years
which must pass ere he be healed ; but then cometh the
merciful Christ who shall lead thy father Adam into Par-
adise to the tree of mercy.' " And when they had all
heard this, the patriarchs and the prophets, and all the holy
men who were in that place of torment, rejoiced exceed-
ingly and glorified God.
* Terrifying was it when Satan, the prince of hell and
captain of death, spake rmto Hell : " Make thyself ready
now to receive Christ, who hath glorified Himself and is
the Son of God, yet also Man, and even death itself is
afraid of Him — 'My soul is exceeding sorrowful unto
death.' ^ Therefore is he a mighty Adversary, working
evil unto me and unto thee ; and many that I had sub-
dued and put beneath my feet — the blind and the halt,
the crippled and the leper — all these will he take from
thee." Then Hell, being right fierce and savage, made
answer unto Satan, that ancient devil, saying: "A\^io is
He so strong and mighty, if man He be, [among those]
whom we twain had formerly imprisoned, unafraid of
death ? For all who had dominion upon earth thou hast
drawn unto me by thy might, and I hold them fast ; and
if thou art as mighty as formerly thou w^ast, who is the
man and the Saviour that feareth not thy valor? But
verily I know that if He is so mighty in His human
estate that He feareth neither us nor death, then He is
so valiant in His di\duity that naught can withstand
1 Mark 14. 34. The Old English is here somewhat vague and contra-
dictory, owing to the fact that it does not translate the Latin exactly.
222 LATE ANONYMOUS WORKS
Him. And I know that if death feareth Him, He shall
take thee captive, and woe shall be unto thee for ever-
more." And Satan, prince of the pit, made answer unto
Hell, saying : " Why dost thou hesitate, and why art thou
afraid to receive the Saviour, foe unto me and thee alike,
inasmuch as I did tempt Him, and did enrage the Jews,
and did arouse them all to wrath against Him; and I
caused Him to be pierced with a spear, and to be given
vinegar to drink mingled with gall; and I caused men
to make a rood-tree for Him, and to hang and nail Him
there? And now finally cometh His death, and I will
lead Him unto thee, and He shall be subject unto me
and thee." And Hell right fiercely spake: "Look that
thou quit thyself in such wise that He take not the
dead from me ; for here are many eager to be gone from
me, that they may not dwell within me. But I know
that they will not depart from me by their own strength,
saving God Almighty take them from me — even He
who took Lazarus from me, whom I held four days fast
bound in death, and yet at His command yielded him up
alive." Then answered Satan, saying: "It is even He
who took Lazarus from us twain." Then spake Hell : " Lo,
I adjure thee, by thy might and mine, never to permit
Him to enter into me ; for when I heard the word of His
command I was sore afraid, and all my wicked thanes
were terrified and afflicted with me, so that we could not
hold Lazarus, but he shook himself even as an eagle
when he will soar forth in mighty flight; even so he
hastened from us, and the earth which held the dead
body yielded it up alive. And now I know that He who
did all this is strong and mighty in the Lord, and if
thou bringest Him unto me, all those that are imprisoned
in this cruel prison, and bound in these fetters of sin. He
THE HARROWING OF HELL 223
will take from me by His di\dne might and lead them
into life."
'But as they were thus speaking, there was a voice
heard and a dread cry, loud as a clap of thunder, saying :
Tollite iJortas, principes, vestras, et elevamini, portce ceter-
nales, et introihit Rex glorice, which is to say in Enghsh :
" Ye chiefs, lift up your gates, and be ye lift up, ye ever-
lasting doors, and the King of glory shall come in." ^ But
when Hell heard this, she spake unto Satan her lord :
"Depart from me straightway, and get thee out of my
dwelling, and if thou art as mighty as thou hast said, do
thou fight now against this King of glory, and let it be
between thee and Him." And therefore Hell drove Satan
from his throne, and said to her wicked thanes : " Lock
ye now the dread gates of brass, and make fast their bars
of iron ; and do ye resist mightily, and hold fast our cap-
tives, that we be not ourselves led captive." Now when
the multitude of saints there present heard these words,
they cried all ^ith one voice, saying unto Hell : " Open
thy gates, that the King of glory may come in." And
moreover David said : " Did I not prophesy unto you
when I was upon earth alive : ' Praise ye the Lord for
His goodness, for He will show His wonderful works unto
the children of men, and wiU break asunder the gates of
brass and the bars of iron, and will deliver them from the
path of their unrighteousness ? ' " ^ And thereafter spake
the prophet Isaiah to all the saints there present: "And
did I not say unto you while I was yet upon earth alive
that the dead should arise and many graves be opened,
and that men upon earth should rejoice because salvation
should come unto them from the Lord ? " ^ And when all
the saints heard this from the prophet Isaiah, they said
1 Ps. 24. 7. 2 cf. Ps. 107. 15 ff. 3 Cf. Isa. 26. 19.
224 LATE ANONYIVIOUS WORKS
unto Hell : " Open thy gates ; now shalt thou be weak
and devoid of thy strength, yea, utterly vanquished."
' And as they were thus speaking, there came suddenly
a mighty voice, as it were a clap of thunder, crying : " Ye
lords, lift up your gates, and be ye lift up, ye everlasting
doors, and the King of glory shall come in." But when
Hell heard that cry a second time, she cried again, saying :
" Wlio is the King of glory ? " And David answered her
and said : " These words I know full well, yea, I myself did
sing these very words while I was upon earth, saying that
the Lord himself would from heaven behold the earth and
hear the groaning of the prisoner.^ And now, thou most
foul and stinking Hell, open thy gates, that the King of
glory may come in."
* As David was thus speaking, the glorious King — our
Lord of heaven — did come in the likeness of man, and
He illumined those everlasting shades, and rent the bonds
of sin asunder, and delivered all our forefathers from the
darkness where they had dwelt so long. But Hell and
Death, and their accursed host and those cruel thanes,
when they saw and heard were struck with terror, inas-
much as they saw so bright a light shining in their realms.
And suddenly they beheld Christ seat himself upon the
throne as laying claim unto it for Himself, and they cried,
saying : " We are vanquished by Thee, and we ask Thee
who Thou art, Thou that without strife or stain hast by
Thy mighty strength humbled our power ? And who art
Thou, so great and yet so small, so abased and yet so ex-
alted, and who art Thou so wondrous, that in the likeness ,^
of a single man dost overcome us ? So, art Thou not He
who lay dead in the grave, and art come hither unto us
alive, and because of Thy death the whole creation and al
1 Cf . Ps. 102. 19, 20.
THE HARROWING OF HELL 225
the stars are troubled, and Thou alone of all the dead art
gone free, and all our host Thou hast mightily disturbed.
And who art Thou that hast sent abroad this light, and
with Thy divine might and brightness hast bhnded the sin-
ful shades, and likewise all this host of devils hast sorely ter-
rified ? " And all the devils cried with one voice : " AVhence
art Thou, 0 Thou Saviour, Thou man so mighty and so
bright in Thy strength, being without stain and untarnished
by any crime ? All the earth has been subject unto us till
now. And earnestly we pray Thee who Thou art, Thou so
excellent, who art come unto us, and w41t take from us all
those whom we have long held in bondage. Or peradven-
ture art Thou that Saviour of whom Satan our lord spake
unto us, saying that in Thy death he would have dominion
over all the earth ? "
' But the King of Glory, our heavenly Lord, would have
no more words from the de\ils, but trod the damned Death
far under foot ; and He seized Satan and bound him fast,
and gave him over into the power of Hell. And she received
him even as she was bidden by our heavenly Lord. Then
spake HeU unto Satan : " Lo, thou Prince of all perdi-
tion, author and source of every ill, father of all criminals,
thou who wast the lord of aU death, source of all arrogance,
h^w didst thou dare to send this purpose into the Jews
that they did crucify the Saviour, though thou knewest
there was no guilt in Him ? And by that tree and cross
thou hast spilled all thy bliss, and in that thou didst crucify
the King of glory thou didst evil unto thee and me alike ;
and understand now how many eternal pangs and endless
torments thou dost suffer in mine everlasting thraldom."
Now when the King of glory heard how Hell spake unto
that fierce Satan, He said unto her : " Let Satan be in thy
power, and be ye twain for ever damned, world without
226 LATE ANONYMOUS WORKS
end, in the spot where ye have long held Adam and the
children of the prophets."
' And then the glorious Lord stretched forth his right
hand, saying : " All ye my saints, ye who bear my likeness,
come unto me ; and ye who were lost through the fruit of
the tree, behold, through the rood-tree on which I was
crucified shall ye vanquish Death and the devil." Then
straightway did the saints draw near unto the Saviour's
hand ; and the Saviour took Adam by the right hand, say-
ing unto him : " Peace be unto thee, O Adam, and unto all
thy children." Then Adam fell down and kissed the Sa-
viour's knee, and in tearful salutation cried out with mighty
voice : " I praise thee, 0 Lord of heaven, that wast willing
to deliver me out of this torment of Hell." And the Lord
put forth His hand, and made the sign of the cross upon
Adam and upon all His saints ; and He drew Adam by the
right hand out of Hell, and all the saints followed after
them. And the holy David cried with a loud voice, say-
ing : " O sing unto the Lord a new song, for He hath showed
marvelous things unto all people, and He hath made known
His salvation in the sight of all nations, and manifested
forth His righteousness." ^ And all the saints answered him
saying : " For tliis be glory unto God, and honor unto all
His saints. Amen. Alleluia."
* The holy Lord, who was holding Adam by the hand,
delivered it unto the archangel Michael, and HimseK en-
tered into heaven ; and all the saints followed after the
archangel Michael, and he led them into Paradise with
glorious rejoicing. But as they were entering in, they met
two aged men, and all the saints straightway asked them,
saying : " Who are ye who were not in hell with us, and
are not yet dead, and nevertheless your bodies are together
1 Cf. Ps. 98. 1 and 2.
THE HARROWING OF HELL 227
in Paradise ? " And the other answered them and said :
" I am Enoch, and I was brought hither by the word of
God, and tliis is Elijah the Tishbite with me. He w^as
brought hither in a chariot of fire, and we twain have not
yet tasted death, and we are to await Antichrist with
divine signs and tokens, and we are to fight against him ;
and we shall be slain by him in Jerusalem and he also by
us ; but we shall be quickened again in the space of three
and a half ^ days, and we shall be raised up in clouds."
' But while Enoch and Elijah were thus speaking, there
came a certain man of miserable aspect, having the likeness
of a cross upon his shoulders, and the saints saw him
straightway, and spake unto him : " Who art thou whose
aspect is as that of a malefactor, and what is the symbol
that thou hast upon thy shoulder ? " He answered them
and said : " Verily thou say est that I was a malefactor and
wrought all manner of evil upon earth, but the Jews cruci-
fied me with the Saviour, and I saw all things that were
done by the Saviour on the cross, and I straightway believed
that He was the Lord of all creation, the Almighty King ;
and I eagerly begged Him, saying : ' Lord, remember me
when thou comest into Thy kingdom.' ^ And he hearkened
unto my prayer, saying unto me : * Verily I say unto thee, to-
day shalt thou be with me in Paradise ' ; and He gave me this
likeness of the cross, and said : ' Go into Paradise with this
symbol, and if the angel-guardian of the gate of Paradise
forbid thee to enter, show unto him this likeness of the
cross, and say unto him that Christ the Saviour, the Son of
God, that was crucified but now, did send thee thither.'
And all these things did I say unto the angelic guard, and
he straightway led me in by the right half of the gate of
Paradise, and he bade me wait, saying unto me : ' Wait
.1 Cf. Dan. 7. 25 ; 12. 7 ; Rev. 11. 9, 11. 2 Lk. 23. 43.
228 LATE ANONYMOUS WORKS
here until all the race of men shall be gone in, father Adam
and all his children, and all the saints who were with him
in hell.' " And all the patriarchs and prophets, when they
heard the words of the malefactor, spake with one voice :
" Blessed be the Lord Almighty and the Father everlast-
ing, who gave thee such remission of thy sins, and with
such grace led thee unto Paradise." He answered and said :
" Amen." '
These are the divine and holy mysteries which the two
prophets, Carinus- and Leuticus, truly beheld and heard.
Chauncey B. Tinker
V
LATIN WORKS BY OLD ENGLISH
WEITEES
SELECTIONS FEOM THE MINOR WORKS OF
BEDEi
1. THE ENGLISH MONTHS
De Temporum Ratione 15
The ancient English peoples — for it does not seem to me
proper to explain the yearly observance of other nations,
and to keep silence concerning my own — reckoned their
months by the course of the moon, just as they were
named from the moon in Hebrew and Greek. Accordingly,
as they called the moon mona, the month was called
monath. The first month, which the Romans name Jan-
uary, is with them Giuh.^ Then foUow February, Sol-
monath ; March, Hredmonath ; April, Eosturmonath ; May,
Thrimilchi; June, Litha; July, also Litha ; August, Weod-
monath; September, Halegmonath; October, Wmterf ylleth ;
November, Blotmonath ; December, Giuli, the same as for
January. They began the year with December 25, the day
we now celebrate as Christmas; and the very night to
which we attach special sanctity they designated by the
heathen term mddraniht, that is, the mothers' night — a
name bestowed, I suspect, on account of the ceremonies
which they performed while watching this night through.
The peoples who welcomed the year in the same way
also assigned three lunar months to each season of the
year. When, however, an embolism occurred, that is, a
year of thirteen lunar months, they added the intercalated
month to the summer, so that in that case three months
1 For prefatory note on Bede, see pp. 3, 4. 2 Mod. Eng. ' Yule.'
231
232 LATIN WORKS BY OLD ENGLISH WRITERS
in succession were called Litlia. Such a year was known as
thrillthi, having four months of summer, and three of each
of the other seasons.
The general division of the year was into two seasons,
winter and summer, summer comprising the six months in
which the days are longer than the nights, and winter the
others. Hence the month with which they began the winter
season was called Winterfylleth, a name compounded of the
terms for winter and full moon, because from the full moon
of that month winter was esteemed to begin.
It will not be foreign to our purpose if I endeavor to
interpret the names of their other months. The months
called Giuli receive their name from the sun's change to a
longer day, since the first precedes, and. the second follows.
Solmonath may be rendered ' month of cakes,' cakes being
offered in this month to their gods.^ Hredmonath^ was
named from their goddess Hreda, to whom they sacrificed
in this month. Eosturmonath, which is now interpreted as
'Paschal month,' had its name from their goddess Easter
(Eostre), to whom they held festivals in this month ; thus
in naming the Paschal season after her, they designate the
joys of a new celebration by the customary term applied to
an ancient observance. Thrimilchi was so called because in
that month milking was performed three times a day, such
being then the richness of Britain, or perhaps rather of Ger-
many, from which the English people entered Britain. Litha^
means delightful, or navigable, because in both of these
months the serenity of the air is delightful, and the seas are
wont to be navigated. Weodmonath is the month of weeds,
since then they most abound. Halegmonath is the month
1 Cf. Jer. 7. 18.
2 Grimm (Deutsche Mythologie, p. 267) associates this with OE. ?ire&,
victory,' 'glory.'
3 In Old English, I't&e means ' mild,' ' gentle,' and li&an, ' to sail.'
SELECTIONS FROM MINOR WORKS OF BEDE 233
of sacred rites. Winterfylleth is as much as to say ' winter
full moon.' Blotmonath is the month of sacrifices, be-
cause in that month they consecrated to their gods the
animals that they were about to kill. Thanks be unto
Thee, 0 good Jesus, who hast turned us away from these
vanities, and hast granted us to offer to Thee- the sacrifices
of praise.
Albert S. Cook
2. SELECTIONS FROM THE LIFE OF ST. CUTHBERT^
Works, ed. Giles, 4. 202 ff.
Cuthbert's Youth
Tlie beginning of our history of the blessed Cuthbert
is hallowed by Jeremy the prophet, who, in exaltation of
the anchorite's perfect state, says : ' It is good for a man
when he hath borne the yoke from his youth ; he shall sit
alone, and shall be silent, because he shall raise himself
above himself.' ^ For, inspired by the sweetness of this good,
Cuthbert, the man of God, from his early youth bent his
neck beneath the yoke of the monastic institution, and
when occasion presented itself, having laid fast hold of the
anachoretic life, he rejoiced to sit apart for no small space
of time, and for the sweetness of divine meditation to hold
his tongue silent from human colloquy. But that he
should be able to do this in his advanced years was the
effect of God's grace inciting him gradually to the way of
truth from his early childhood; for even to the eighth
1 Cuthbert died March 20, a.d. 687. For his life, aud the wanderings
of his body after death, see the article in the Dictionary of Christian
Biography, or lives by Eyre (3d ed., 1887) and Raine (1828); cf. Scott,
Marmion 2. 14 ff . His tomb, and various relics, are in the cathedral of
Durham.
2 Cf. Lam. 3. 27, 28.
234 LATIN WORKS BY OLD ENGLISH WRITERS
year of his life, which is the first year of boyhood succeed-
ing to infancy, he gave his mind to such plays and enjoy-
ments alone as boys delight in, so that it might be testified
of him as it was of Samuel, ' Moreover Cuthbert knew not
yet the Lord, neither had the voice of the Lord been
revealed to him.' ^ Such was the panegyric of his boyhood
who in more ripened age was destined perfectly to know
the Lord, and, opening the ears of his mind, to imbibe the
voice of God. He took delight, as we have stated, in mirth
and clamor ; and, as was natural at his age, rejoiced to
attach himself to the company of other boys, and to share
in their sports ; and because he was agile by nature and
of a quick mind, he often prevailed over them in their
boyish contests, and frequently, when the rest were tired,
he alone would hold out, and look triumphantly to see if
any remained to contend with him for victory. For in
jumping, running, wrestling, or any other bodily exercise,
he boasted that he could surpass all those who were of the
same age, and even some that were older than himself.
For when he was a child, he knew as a child, he thought
as a child ; but afterwards, when he became a man, he
most abundantly laid aside all those childish things.^
And indeed divine Providence found from the first a
worthy preceptor to curb the sallies of his youthful mind.
For as Trumwine of blessed memory told me on the
authority of Cuthbert himself, there were one day some
customary games going on in a field, and a large number
of boys were got together, among whom was Cuthbert, and
in the excitement of boyish whims, several of them began
to bend their bodies into various forms. On a sudden, one
of them, apparently about three years old, runs up to
Cuthbert, and in a firm tone exhorts him not to indulge in
1 Cf. 1 Sam. 8. 7. 2 cf. 1 Cor. 13. 11.
SELECTIONS FROM MINOR WORKS OF BEDE 235
idle play and follies, but to cultivate the powers of his
mind as well as those of his body. When Cuthbert made
light of his advice the boy fell to the ground, and shed
tears bitterly. The rest run up to console him, but he
persists in weeping. They ask him why he burst out cry-
ing so unexpectedly. At length he made answer, and turn-
ing to Cuthbert, who was trying to comfort him, ' Why,'
said he, ' do you, holy Cuthbert, priest and prelate, give
yourself up to those things which are so opposite to your
nature and rank ? It does not become you to be playing
among children when the Lord has appointed you to be a
teacher of virtue, even to those who are older than your-
self.' Cuthbert, being a boy of a good disposition, heard
these w^ords with evident attention, and pacifying the cry-
ing child with affectionate caresses, immediately abandoned
his vain sports, and, returning home, began from that
moment to exhibit an unusual decision both of mind and
character, as if the same spirit which had spoken outwardly
from the mouth of the boy were now beginning to exert
its influence inwardly in liis heart.
A Vision
It chanced upon a time that he was tending a flock
of sheep entrusted to his care on some distant moun-
tains. One night, w^hilst his companions were sleeping,
and he himself was awake, as he was wont to be, and
engaged in prayer, on a sudden he saw a long stream of
light break through the darkness of the night, and in the
midst of it a company of the heavenly host descended to
the earth, and having received among them a spirit of
surpassing brightness, returned without delay to their
heavenly home. The young man, beloved of God, was
struck with the sight, and, stimulated to earn for himself
236 LATIN WORKS BY OLD ENGLISH WRITERS
eternal life and happiness among God's mighty ones, he
forthwith offered up praise and thanksgivings to the Lord,
and called upon his companions with brotherly exliorta-
tions to imitate his example. ' Miserable men that we are,'
said he, ' while we are resigning ourselves to sleep and
idleness, we take no thought to behold the light of God's
holy angels who never sleep. Behold, whilst I was awake
and praying during a short period of the night, I saw such
great miracles of God. The door of heaven was opened,
and there was led in tliither, amidst an angelic company,
the spirit of some holy man, who now, for ever blessed,
beholds the glory of the heavenly mansion, and Christ its
King, whilst we still grovel amid this earthly darkness :
and I think it must have been some holy bishop, or some
favored one from out of the company of the faithful, whom
I saw thus carried into heaven amid so much splendor by
that laro^e ans^elic choir.' ^ As the man of God said these
words, the hearts of the shepherds were kindled up to
reverence and praise. AMien the morning was come, he
found that Aidan, bishop of the church of Lindisfarne, a
man of exalted piety, had ascended to the heavenly king-
dom at the very moment of his vision. Immediately,
therefore, he delivered over the sheep which he was feeding
to their owners, and determined forthwith to enter a
monastery.
CUTHBERT AS TeACHER
After the death of Boisil, Cuthbert took upon himself
the duties of the office before mentioned, and for many
years discharged them with the most pious zeal, as became
a saint ; for he not only furnished precept and example to
his brethren of the monastery, but sought to lead the
minds of the neigliboring people to the love of heavenly
1 Cf . pp. 48 ff.
SELECTIONS FROM MINOR WORKS OF BEDE 237
things. Many of them, indeed, disgraced the faith which
they professed by unholy deeds ; and some of them, in
the time of mortality, neglecting the sacrament of their
creed, had recourse to idolatrous remedies, as if by charms
or amulets, or any other mysteries of the magical art, they
were able to avert a stroke inflicted upon them by the
Lord. To correct these errors, he often went out from the
monastery, sometimes on horseback, sometimes on foot,
and preached the w^ay of truth to the neighboring villages,
as Boisil his predecessor had done before him. It was at
this time customary for the English people to flock to-
gether when a clerk or priest entered a village, and listen
to what he said, that so they might learn something from
him, and amend their lives. Now Cuthbert was so skilful
in teaching, and so zealous in what he undertook, that
none dared to conceal from him their thoughts, but all
acknowledged what they had done amiss; for they sup-
posed that it was impossible to escape his notice, and they
hoped to merit forgiveness by an honest confession. He
was mostly accustomed to travel to those villages which
lay in out-of-the-way places among the mountains, wdiich
by their poverty and natural horrors deterred other visitors.
Yet even here did his devoted mind find exercise for its
powers of teacliing, insomuch that he often remained a
week, sometimes two or three, nay, even a whole month,
without returning home ; but, dwelling among the moun-
tains, taught the poor people both by the words of liis
preaching and also by his own holy conduct.
Cuthbert's Penance
Here also, as elsewhere, he would go forth when others
were asleep, and, having spent the night in watchfulness,
return home at the hour of morning prayer. Now one
238 LATIN WORKS BY OLD ENGLISH WRITERS
night a brother of the monastery, seeing him go out
alone, followed him privately to see what he would do.
But he, when he left the monastery, went down to the
sea which flows beneath, and, going into it until the
water reached his neck and arms, spent the night in
praising God.^ When the dawn of day approached, he
came out of the water, and, falling on his knees, began to
pray again. While, he was doing this, two quadrupeds
called otters came up from the sea, and, lymg down be-
fore him on the sand, breathed upon his feet, and wiped
them with their hair; after wdiich, having received his
blessing, they returned to tlieir native element. Cuthbert
himself returned home in time to join in the accustomed
hymns with the other brethren. The brother who waited
for him on the heights was so terrified that he could
hardly reach home; and early in the morning he came
and fell at his feet, asking his pardon, for he did not
doubt that Cuthbert was fully acquainted with all that
had taken place. To whom Cuthbert replied : ' What is
the matter, my brother ? What have you done ? Did you
follow to see what I was about to do ? I forgive you for
it on one condition — that you tell it to nobody before
my death.' ^ In this he followed the example of the Lord,
who, when he showed his glory to his disciples on the
mountain, said : ' See that you tell no man, until the Son
of man be risen from the dead.' ^ When the brother had
assented to this condition, he gave him his blessing, and
released him from all his trouble. The man concealed
this miracle during St. Cuthbert's life, but after his death
took care to tell it to as many persons as he was able.
1 See the similar account of Dryhthelm, p. 65.
2 The same request is made by Chad, p. 49.
3 Matt, 17. 9; Mark 9. 9.
SELECTIONS FROM MINOR WORKS OF BEDE 239
A Miracle
It happened also that on a certain day he was going
forth from the monastery to preach, with one attendant
only ; and when they had become tired with walking,
though a great part of their journey lay before them ere
they could reach the village to which they were going,
Cuthbert said to his follower: 'Where shall we stop to
take refreshment ? or do you know any one on the road
to whom we may turn in ? ' * I was myself thinking on
the same subject,' said the boy ; ' for we have brought no
provisions with us, and I know no one on the road who
will entertain us, and we have a long journey still before
us, which we cannot well accomplish without eating.'
The man of God replied: 'My son, learn to have faith,
and trust in God, who will never suffer to perish with
hunger those who have trust in Him.' Then looking up,
and seeing an eagle flying in the air, he said : ' Do you
perceive that eagle yonder ? It is possible for God to
feed us even by means of that eagle.' As they were thus
discoursing, they came near a river, and behold, the eagle
was standing on its bank.' 'Look,' said the man of God,
'there is our handmaid the eagle that I spoke to you
about. Eun and see what provision God has sent us,
and come again and tell me.' The boy ran, and found a
good-sized fish, which the eagle had just caught. But
the man of God reproved him : ' What have you done,
my son ? Wliy have you not given part to God's hand-
maid? Cut the fish in two pieces, and give her one, as
her service well deserves.' He did as he was bidden, and
carried the other part with him on his journey. Wlien
the time for eating was come, they turned aside to a cer-
tain village, and, having given the fish to be cooked, made
an excellent repast, and gave also to their entertainers,
240 LATIN WORKS BY OLD ENGLISH WRITERS
whilst Cuthbert preached to them the word of God, and
blessed Him for his mercies ; for happy is the man whose
hope is in the name of the Lord, and who has not looked
upon vanity and foolish deceit. After this, they resumed
their journey, to preach to those among whom they
were going.
Cuthbert's House
At his first entrance upon the solitary life, he sought
out the most retired spot in the outskirts of the monas-
tery. But when he had for some time contended with
the invisible adversary with prayer and fasting in tliis
sohtude, he then, aiming at higher things, sought out a
more distant field for conflict, and more remote from
the eyes of men. There is a certain island called Fame
in the middle of the sea, not made an island, like Lind-
isfarne, by the flow of the tide, which the Greeks call
rlienma, and then restored to the mainland at its ebb,
but lying off several miles to the east, and consequently
surrounded on all sides by the deep and boundless ocean.
No one, before God's servant Cuthbert, had ever dared to
inhabit this island alone, on account of the evil spirits
which reside there ; but when this servant of Christ
came, armed with the helmet of salvation, the shield of
faith, and the sword of the Spirit, which is the word of
God, all the fiery darts of the wicked were extinguished,^
and that wicked enemy and all his followers were put
to flight.
Christ's soldier, therefore, having thus, by the expul-
sion of the tyrants, become the lawful monarch of the
land, built a city fit for his empire, and houses therein
suitable to his city. The building is almost of a round
form, from wall to wall about four or five poles in extent ;
1 Cf. Eph. 6. 16, 17.
SELECTIONS FROM MINOR WORKS OF BEDE 241
the wall on the outside is higher than a man, but withiu,
by excavating the rock, he made it much deeper, to pre-
vent the eyes and the thoughts from wandering, that the
miud might be wholly bent on heavenly things, and the
pious inhabitant might behold notliing from his residence
but the heavens above him. The wall was constructed,
not of hewn stones or of brick and mortar, but of rough
stones and turf, which had been taken from the ground
within. Some of them were so large that four men could
hardly have lifted them, but Cuthbert himself, with angels
helping him, had raised them up and placed them on the
wall. There were two chambers in the house, one an
oratory, the other for domestic purposes. He finished the
walls of them by digging round and cutting away the
natural soil within and without, and forming the roof out
of rough poles and straw. Moreover, at the landing-place
of the island he built a large house, in which the brethren
who visited him there might be received and rest them-
selves, and not far from it there was a fountain of water
for their use.
He Tills the Fields
At first, indeed, he received from his visitors a small
portion of bread, and drank water from the fountaiu;
but afterwards he thought it more fitting to live by the
labor of his own hands, like the old Fathers. He therefore
asked them to bring him some instruments of husbandry,
and some wheat to sow ; but when he had sown the graui
ui the spring it did not come up. At the next visit of the
monks he said to them: 'Perhaps the nature of the soil,
or the will of God, does not allow wheat to grow in this
place ; bring me, I beg of you, some barley — possibly
that may answer. If, however, on trial it does not, I had
better return to the monastery than be supported here by
242 LATIN WORKS BY OLD ENGLISH WRITERS
the labor of others.' The barley was accordmgly brought
and sown, although the season was extraordinarily late ;
and the barley came up most unexpectedly and most
abundantly. It no sooner began to ripen than the birds
came and wasted it most grievously. Christ's holy serv-
ant, as he himself afterwards told it (for he used in a
cheerful and affable manner to confirm the faith of his
hearers by telling them the mercies which his own faith
had obtained from the Lord), drew near to the birds,
and said to them:^ 'Why do you touch that which you
have not sown ? Have you more share than I in this ?
If you have received license from God, do what he
allows you ; but if not, get you gone, and do no further
injury to that which belongs to another.' He had no
sooner spoken than all the flock of birds departed, and
never more returned to feed upon that field.
Cuthbert's Character
The venerable man of God, Cuthbert, adorned the office
of bishop, which he had undertaken, by the exercise of
many virtues, according to the precepts and examples of
the apostles. For he protected the people committed
to his care with frequent prayers, and invited them to
heavenly things by most wholesome admonitions, and
followed that system which most facilitates teaching, by
first doing himself what he taught to others.^ He saved
the needy man from the hand of the stronger, and the
poor and destitute from those who would oppress them.
He comforted the weak and sorrowful; but he took care
to recall those who were sinfully rejoicing to that sorrow
1 St. Francis' preaching to the birds (cf. Sabatier's Life, p. 177) is more
than five hundred years later.
2 Cf . Chaucer, Prologue to the Canterbury Tales 529-530 ; and Gold-
smith, Deserted Village 170.
selectio:n^s from minor works of BEDE 243
which is according to godliness.^ Desiring still to exer-
cise his usual frugality, he did not cease to observe the
severity of a monastic life, amid the turmoil by which he
was surrounded. He gave food to the hungry, raiment
to the shivering, and liis course was marked by all the
other particulars which adorn the life of a pontiff.
3. SELECTIONS FROM THE LIFE OF BENEDICT
BISCOP'^
Works, ed. Giles, 4. 358 ff.
After the interval of a year, Benedict crossed the sea
into Gaul, and no sooner asked than he obtained and carried
back with liim some merchants to build him a church in
the Eoman style, which he had always admired. So much
zeal did he show from his love to Saint Peter, in whose
honor he was building it, that within a year from the time
of laying the foundation, you might have seen the roof on,
and the solemnity of the mass celebrated therein. When
the work was drawing to completion, he sent messengers
to Gaul to fetch makers of glass (more properly artificers),
who were at this time unknown in Britain, that they might
glaze the windows of his church, with the cloisters and
dining-rooms. This was done, and they came, and not only
finished the work required, but taught the Enghsh nation
their handicraft, which was well adapted for closiug the
lanterns of the church, and for the vessels required for
necessary uses. All other thiugs necessary for the serv-
ice of the church and the altar, the sacred vessels, and
the vestments, because they could not be procured in
England, he took especial care to buy and bring home
from foreign parts.
1 Cf. 2 Cor. 7. 10. 2 cf. p. 3.
244 LATIX AVORKS BY OLD ENGLISH WRITERS
Some decorations and muniments there were which could
not be procured even in Gaul, and these the pious founder
determined to fetch from Eome ; for which purpose, after
he had formed the rule for his monastery, he made liis
fourth voyage to Eome, and returned loaded with more
abmidant spiritual merchandise than before. In the first
place, he brought back a large quantity of books of all
kinds ; secondly, a great number of relics of Christ's apos-
tles and martyrs, all likely to bring a blessing on many
an English church ; thirdly, he introduced the Roman mode
of chanting, siuging, and ministering in the church, by ob-
taiuiug permission from Pope Agatho to take back with
him John, the archchanter of the church of St. Peter,^ and
abbot of the monastery of St. Martin, to teach the English.
This John, when he arrived in England, not only communi-
cated instruction by teaching personally, but left behind
him numerous writings, which are still preserved in tlie
library of the same monastery. In the fourth place, Bene-
dict brought ^vith him a thing by no means to be despised,
a letter of pri\ilege from Pope Agatho, which he had pro-
cured, not only with the consent, but by the request and
exhortation of King Egfrith, and by which the monastery
was rendered safe and secure for ever from foreign invasion.
Fifthly, he brought with him pictures of sacred representa-
tions, to adorn the church of St. Peter, which he had built ;
namely, a likeness of the Virgin Mary and of the twelve
apostles, with which he intended to adorn the central nave,
on boarding placed from one wall to the other ; also some
figures from ecclesiastical history for the south wall, and
others from the Revelation of St. John for the north wall ;
so that every one who entered the church, even if they could
not read, wherever they turned their eyes, might have
1 Cf . p. 50.
SELECTIONS FROM MINOR WORKS OF BEDE 245
before tliem the amiable countenance of Christ and his
saints, thougli it were but in a picture, and with watchful
minds might revolve on the benefits of our Lord's incarna-
tion, and, having before their eyes the perils of the Last
Judgment, might examine their hearts the more strictly
on that account. . . .
This man therefore undertook the government of the
monastery in the ninth year after its foundation, and con-
tinued it till his death four years after. He was a man of
noble birth ; but he did not make that, like some men, a
cause of boasting and despising others, but a motive for
exercising nobihty of mind also, as becomes a servant of
the Lord. He was the cousin of his own abbot Benedict ;
and yet such was the singleness of mind in both, such was
their contempt for human grandeur, that the one, on enter-
ing the monastery, did not expect any honor or relationship
to be taken of him more than of others, and Benedict liim-
self never thought of offering any ; but the young man,
faring like the rest, took pleasure in undergoing the usual
course of monastic discipline in every respect. And indeed,
though he had been an attendant on King Egfrith, and had
abandoned his temporal vocation and arms, devotmg him-
self to spiritual welfare, he remained so like the other breth-
ren that he took pleasure in threshing and winnowing,
milking the ewes and cows, and employed himself in the
bakehouse, the garden, the kitchen, and in aU the other
labors of the monastery, with readiness and submission.
When he attained to the name and dignity of abbot, he
retained the same spirit, saying to all, according to the ad-
vice of a certain wise man : ' They have made thee a ruler ;
be not exalted, but be amongst them like one of them,
gentle, affable, and kind to all.' ^ Whenever occasion
1 Cf. Ecelus. 32. 1.
246 LATIN WORKS BY OLD ENGLISH WRITERS
required, he punished offenders by regular discipliue ; but
was rather careful, out of liis natural habits of love, to warn
them not to offend, and bring a cloud of disquietude over
his cheerful countenance. Oftentimes, when he went forth
on the business of the monastery, if he foimd the brethren
working, he would join them and work with them, by tak-
ing the plow-handle, or handling the smith's hammer, or
using the ^vinnowing-maclline, or anything of like nature.
For he was a young man of great strength and pleasant
tone of voice, of a kind and boimtiful disposition, and fair
to look on. He ate of the same food as the other brethren,
and in the same apartment : he slept in the same common
room as he did before he was abbot ; so that even after he
was taken ill, and foresaw clear signs of his approaching
death, he still remained two days in the common dormitory
of the brethren. He passed the five days immediately be-
fore his death in a private apartment, from which he came
out one day, and, sitting in the open air, sent for all the
brethren, and, as his kind feelings prompted liim, gave to
each of them the kiss of peace, whilst they all shed tears
of sorrow for this the loss of their father and their guide.
He died on the seventh of March, in the nioht, as the breth-
ren were leaving off the matm hymn. He was twenty-four
years old when he entered the monastery ; he lived there
twelve years, durmg seven of which he was in priest's orders;
the others he passed in the dignity of abbot ; and so, having
thrown off his fleshly and perishable body, he entered the
heavenly kingdom.
Now that we have this foretaste of the life of the vener-
able Easterwine, let us resume the thread of the narrative.
When Benedict had made this man abbot of St. Peter's,
and Ceolfrith abbot of St. Paul's, he not long after made his
fifth voyage from Britain to Eome, and returned (as usual)
SELECTIONS FROM MINOR WORKS OF BEDE 247
with an immense number of proper ecclesiastical relics.
There were many sacred books and pictures of the saints,
as numerous as before. He also brought with him jjictures
out of our Lord's history, which he hung round the chapel
of our Lady in the larger monastery ; and others to adorn
8t. Paul's church and monastery, ably describing the con-
nection of the Old and Xew Testament ; ^ as, for instance,
Isaac bearing the wood for his own sacrifice, and Christ
carrying the cross on which he was about to suffer, w^ere
placed side by side. Again, the serj)ent raised up by Moses
in the desert was illustrated by the Son of Man exalted on
the cross. Among other things, he brought two cloaks, all
of silk, and of incomparable workmanship, for which he re-
ceived an estate of three hides on the south bank of the river
Wear, near its mouth, from King Aldf rith, for he f oimd on his
return that Egfrith had been murdered during his absence.
4. SELECTIONS FROM THE LIFE OF CEOLFRITH
Work^, ed. Giles, 4. 387 ff.
The third of these, Ceolfrith, w^as a man of great per-
severance, of acute intellect, bold in action, experienced in
judgment, and zealous in religion. He first of all, as we
have mentioned, with the ad\dce and assistance of Benedict,
founded, completed, and ruled the monastery of St. Paul's
seven years, and afterwards ably governed during twenty-
eight years both these monasteries, or, to speak more cor-
rectly, the single monastery of St. Peter and St. Paul in its
two separate localities ; and whatever works of merit his
predecessor had begim, he with no less zeal took pains to
finish. For among other arrangements which he found it
1 A similar arrangement is often found in the windows of Gothic cathe-
drals; see Male, UArt Religieux da XIIF Steele en France, pp. 189 ff.
248 LATIN WORKS BY OLD ENGLISH WRITERS
necessary to make during his long government of the mon-
astery, he built several oratories ; increased the number of
vessels of the church and altar, and the vestments of every
kind ; and the hbrary of both monasteries, which Abbot
Benedict had so actively begun, under his equally zealous
care became doubled m extent. For he added three pan-
dects 1 of a new translation to that of the old translation ^
which he had brought from Rome ; one of them, return-
ing to Rome in his old age, he took with him as a gift ;
the other two he left to the two monasteries. Moreover,
for a beautiful volume of the Geographers which Benedict
had bought at Rome, he received in exchange from King
Aldfrith, who was well skilled in Holy Scripture, a grant
of land of eight hides, near the river Fresca, for the mon-
astery of St. Paul's. Benedict had arranged this purchase
with the same King Aldfrith before his death, but died
before he could complete it. . . .
But Ceolfrith, having now practised a long course of
regular discipline, which the prudent Benedict had laid
down for himself and his brethren on tlie authority of the
elders, and having shown the most incomparable skill both
in praying and chanting, in which he daily exercised him-
self, together with the most wonderful energy in punish-
ing the wicked, and modesty in consoling the weak ; having
also observed such abstinence in meat and drink, and such
humility in dress, as are uncommon among rulers; saw
himself now old and full of days, and unfit any longer, from
his extreme age, to prescribe to his brethren the proper
forms of spiritual exercise by his life and doctrine. Having
therefore deliberated long within himself, he judged it ex-
pedient, having first impressed on the brethren to choose
1 Copies of the Bible.
2 The Vulgate Bible, and the Old Latin, or Itala.
SELECTIONS FROM MINOR WORKS OF BEDE 249
for themselves, in accordance with the statutes of their
privilege and the Eule of the holy abbot Benedict,^ a more
efficient abbot out of their own number, to depart for a
visit to the holy places of the blessed apostles at Rome,
where he had been in his youth with the holy Benedict ^ ;
that not only he might for a time be free from all worldly
cares before his death, and so have leisure and quiet for
reflection, but that they also, having chosen a younger
abbot, might naturally, in consequence thereof, observe
more accurately the rules of monastic discipline.
At first all opposed, and entreated him on their knees
and with many tears, but their solicitations were to no pur-
pose. Such w^as his eagerness to depart that on the third
day after he had disclosed his design to the brethren, he
set out upon his journey. For he feared, what actually
came to pass, that he might die before he reached Rome ;
and he was also anxious that neither his friends nor the
nobility, who all honored him, should delay his departure,
or give him money which he would not have time to repay ;
for with him it was an invariable rule, if any one made him
a present, to show equal grace by returning it, either at once
or within a suitable space of time. Early in the morning,
therefore, of Wednesday, the fourth of June,^ the mass was
sung in the church of the blessed mother of God, the ever
virgin Mary, and in the church of the apostle Peter ; and
those who were present communicating with him, he pre-
pared for his departure. All of them assembled in St. Peter's
church; and when he had lighted the frankincense, and
addressed a prayer at the altar, he gave his blessing to all,
standing on the steps, and holding a censer in his hand.
1 Plummer understands this to mean Benedict of Monte Cassino. See
p. 278.
2 That is, Benedict Biscop. This was in 678. 3 a.d. 716.
250 LATIN WORKS BY OLD ENGLISH WRITERS
Amid the prayers of the litany, the cry of sorrow resounded
from all as they went out of the church : they entered the
oratory of St. Lawrence the martyr, which was in the dormi-
tory of the brethren over agaiQst them. Whilst giving them
his last farewell, he admonished them to preserve love to-
wards one another, and to correct, according to the gospel
rule, those who did amiss. He forgave aU of them what-
ever wrong they might have done him ; and entreated them
all to pray for him, and to be reconciled to him, if he had
ever reprimanded them too harshly. They went down to
the shore, and there amid tears and lamentations he gave
them the kiss of peace, whereupon they all knelt ; and
when he had offered up a prayer, he went on board the
vessel with his companions. The deacons of the church
went on board with him, carrying lighted tapers and a
golden cross. Haviug traversed the river, he adored the
cross, mounted his horse, and departed, leaving in both the
monasteries about six hundred brethren.
WTien he was gone, the brethren returned to the church,
and with much weeping and prayer commended themselves
and theirs to the protection of the Lord. After a short
interval, having ended the Psalms of terce, they again
assembled, and dehberated what was to be done. At length
they resolved with prayer, hymns, and fasting, to seek of
the Lord a new abbot as soon as possible. This resolution
they communicated to their brethren of St. Paul's, by some
of that monastery who were present, and also by some of
their own people. They immediately gave their consent,
and both monasteries sho^\dng the same spirit, they alto-
gether lifted up their hearts and voices to the Lord. At
length, on the third day, which was WLdt Sunday, an
assembly was held, consisting of all the bretliren of St.
Peter's and several of tlie elder monks from the monastery
SELECTIONS FROM MIXOR WORKS OF BEDE 251
of St. Paul's. The greatest concord prevailed, and tlie same
sentiments were expressed by both. They elected for their
new abbot Hw^setbert, who from his boyhood had not only
been bred up in the regular discipline of the monastery,
but had acquired much experience in the various duties of
writing, chanting, reading, and teaching. He had been at
Rome in the time of Pope Sergius, of blessed memory, and
had there learnt and copied every thing which he thought
useful or worthy to be brought away. He had also been
twelve years in priest's orders. He was now made abbot,
and immediately went w^ith some of the brethren to Ceol-
frith, who was waiting for a ship in wliich to cross the
ocean. They told him what they had done, for which he
gave thanks to God in approbation of their choice, and
received from his successor a letter of recommendation to
Pope Gregory.^ . . .
But Christ's servant Ceolfrith, as has been said, died on
his way to the threshold of the holy apostles, of old age
and weakness. For he reached the Lingones^ about nine
o'clock, where he died seven hours after, and was honor-
ably buried the next day in the church of the three twin
martyrs, much to the sorrow, not only of the English who
were in his train, to the number of eighty, but also of the
neighboring inhabitants, who were dissolved in tears at the
loss of the reverend father. For it was almost impossible
to avoid weeping to see part of his company continuing
their journey without the holy father, whilst others, aban-
doning their first intentions, returned home to relate his
death and burial ; and others, again, lingered in sorrow at
the tomb of the deceased, among strangers speaking an
unknown tongue.
1 A copy of the letter is given.
2 Langres, southeast of Paris, and nearly north of Dijon.
252 LATIN WORKS BY OLD ENGLISH WRITERS
Ceolfrith was seventy-four years old when lie died: forty-
seven years he had been in priest's orders, during thirty-five
of which he had been abbot ; or, to speak more correctly,
forty-three — for from the time when Benedict began to
build his monastery in honor of the holiest of the apostles,
Ceolfrith had been his only companion, coadjutor, and
teacher of the monastic rules. He never relaxed the rigor
of ancient discipline from any occasions of old age, illness,
or travel ; for, from the day of his departure till the day of
his death, i.e. from the fourth of June until the twenty-
fifth of September, a space of one hundred and fourteen
days, besides the canonical hours of prayer, he never omitted
to go twice daily through the Psalter in order ; and even
when he became so weak that he could not ride on horse-
back, and was obliged to be carried in a horse-litter, the
holy ceremony of the mass was offered up every day, except
one which he passed at sea, and the three days immediately
before his death.
5. BEDE'S LETTER TO EGBERT, ARCHBISHOP
OF YORK
This letter was among the last of Bede's writings. Its date is
Nov. 5, 734, only a few months before Bede's death, if the tradi-
tional date, 735, be accepted. Egbert, who was to rule the church
of the North for thirty -two years after this letter was written,
was the brother of King Eadbert of Northumbria ; he has been
called ' learned, just, gracious, and liberal.' See p. 260, and the
life in the Dictionary of Christian Biorjraphy.
And because your diocese is too extensive for you alone
to go through it, and preach the word of God in every
village and hamlet, even should you give a whole year to
it, it is necessary that you appoint others to assist you
SELECTIONS FROM MINOR WORKS OF BEDE 253
in the holy work, by ordaining priests and nominating
teachers who may be zealous in preaching the word of
God in every village, and celebrating the holy sacraments,
and especially by performing the sacred rites of baptism
wherever opportunity may offer. And in sending forth
such preaching to the people, I consider it above every
other thing important that you should endeavor to im-
plant deeply in the memory of every one in your see the
Catholic faith which is contained in the Apostles' Creed,
and in the Lord's Prayer as it is taught us in the holy gos-
pel. And, indeed, there is no doubt that those who have
studied the Latin language will be found to know. these
well; but the unlearned, that is, those who know only
their own language, must be made to learn them, and
repeat them over and over again, in their own tongue.
This must be done not only in the case of laymen, who
are still in the life of the world, but also in that of the
clergy or monks who are without a knowledge of the
Latin tongue. For thus every congregation of the faithful
will learn in what manner they ought to show their faith,
and with what steadfastness of belief they should arm
and fortify themselves against the assaults of unclean
spirits ; and thus every band of those who pray to God
will learn what they ought especially to ask for from the
divine mercy. Wlierefore also I have myself often given
English translations ^ of both these, namely, the Creed and
the Lord's Prayer, to uneducated priests. For the holy
prelate Ambrose also, speaking of faith,^ gives this ad-
monition, that all the faithful should repeat the words of
the Creed every morning early, and so fortify themselves
as by a spiritual antidote against the poison which the
1 Unfortunately, these translations of Bede's no longer exist.
2 De Virg. 3. 4. 20.
254 LATIN WORKS BY OLD ENCxLISH WRITERS
malignant cunning of the devil may, either by night or by
day, cast out against them. And that the Lord's Prayer
should be frequently repeated is taught us by the habit
of supplication on our knees. . . .
But others, who are laymen, and have no experience
of the regular monastic life, nor any love for the same,
commit a still greater scandal [than the acceptance of
estates by the authorities of unworthy monasteries] ; for
they give money to the kings, and, under pretense of
erecting monasteries, they acquire possessions wherein the
more freely to indulge their licentiousness ; and, procur-
ing these by a royal edict to be assigned over to them in
inheritance, they get the deed by which these privileges
are confirmed, as if it were a matter worthy of God's
notice, authenticated by the signatures of the bishops,
abbots, and secular authorities. And thus, having gained
possession of farms and villages, they free themselves
from every bond, both human and divine,^ and in the
character of superiors over monks, though they are but
laymen, they do nothing therein but gratify their desires.
Nay, it is not monks that are there assembled, but all such
as they can pick up — outcasts from other monasteries
for disobedience, or men whom they can allure away from
other monasteries, or, in short, such of their own followers
as they can persuade to receive the tonsure, and promise
1 Earlier in the letter Bede speaks of their luxury, vanity, and intem-
perance in meat and drink. Accordingly, he would have an episcopal see
established at some monastery, to which a monk, or some one acceptable
to the monks, should be elected. The wicked monasteries should then be
brought under the authority of this bishop, since, as Bede said, ' there are
many such large establishments which, as is commonly said, are of use
neither to God nor man, because they neither observe regular monastic life
nor yet supply soldiers and followers of the secular powers to defend our
province from the barbarians.' The breadth of view here manifested is
remarkable. If Bede's advice had been followed, the spoliation under
Henry VIII might have been lessened, if not averted.
CUTHBERT'S LETTER ON DEATH OF BEDE 255
monastic obedience to themselves. With such ill-sorted
societies do they fill the cells which they have built, wliilst
they present a disgraceful spectacle never before heard of ;
for at one time they are occupied with their wives and the
care of raising children, and at another time they rise
from their beds to occupy themselves with the internal
affairs of the monastery. Furthermore, they display the
same impudence in procuring land for their wives, to erect
convents, as they say ; and these, equally fooHsh, since
they also are laics, suffer themselves to become the supe-
riors over Christ's handmaidens. Well suited to them is
the proverb that wasps, though they can make combs,
yet store them with poison instead of honey. Thus for
about thirty years, ever since King Aldfrith was removed
from this life,^ our province has been involved in such
folly and error. j, j^^ q^^es, shghtly revised
CUTHBEET'S LETTEPt ON THE DEATH OF
BEDE
This letter to a friend in a distant monastery was written by
Cuthbert, a pupil of Bede's, who afterwards became Abbot of
Jarrow. The various texts are not always in agreement in matters
of minor detail. The present version is based on Plummer's text
in his edition of Bede, 1. clx ff., itself taken from Mayor and
Lumby's reproduction (see p. 4) of the ninth-century manuscript
at St. Gallen. We have no record of the fulfilment of the promise
at the close of the letter.
To his fellow-lector Cuthwin, beloved in Christ, Cuth-
bert, his co-disciple, health for ever in God ! I received the
little present you sent me with much pleasure, and have
read with great satisfaction your devout and learned letter,
1 A.D. 705.
256 LATIN WORKS BY OLD ENGLISH WRITERS
in which I found what I so much desired — that you are
diligently celebratiug masses and holy prayers for our father
and master, Bede, beloved of God. And so — rather out
of love for him than relying on any capacity ui myself —
it is pleasing to relate in a few words the manner in wMch
he departed this world, inasmuch as I understand that this
is what you wish and request. For about a fortnight
preceding the day of our Lord's resurrection he was
afHicted with feebleness, and especially with shortness of
breath, though he had no pain of any account. And so
he lived on until our Lord's ascension — the seventh of
the Kalends of June^ — cheerful and rejoicing, returniag
thanks to God Almighty every day and every night — nay,
every hour. He taught lessons every day to us his pupils,
and the rest of the time he busied himself, to the extent
of his abilities, in smging psalms. He also passed the
whole night cheerfully in prayer and thanksgiving to God,
save only when a little sleep prevented ; but he no sooner
awoke than he would presently muse in his customary
way upon the melodies of Scripture; nor did he forget
with uplifted hands to return thanks to God. I declare
with truth that I have never seen with my eyes, nor heard
with my ears, any one so dihgent in giving thanks to the
liviug God.
0 truly blessed man ! He would recite the words of
St. Paul the Apostle, ' It is a fearful thmg to fall uito
the hands of the living, God,' ^ and much more out of
Holy Writ, in which he would exliort us to shake off
the sleep of the soul, and to think upon our last hour.
And he spoke in our tongue also concerning the dread
1 May 26. The reading and the date are uncertain ; Plummer accepts the
traditional year, 735.
2 Heb. 10. 31.
CUTHBERT'S LETTER ON DEATH OF BEDE 257
departure of the soul from the body — for he was skilled
in our songs : ^
Before the dread journey which needs must be taken
No man is more mindful than meet is and right
To ponder, ere hence he departs, what his spirit
Shall, after the death-day, receive as its portion
Of good or evil, by mandate of doom.
He would also sing antiphons, to console us and him-
self, one of which is: '0 King of glory, Lord of hosts,
who didst this day ascend triumphant above all heavens,
we beseech Thee leave us not orphans, but send down
upon us the Spirit of truth, even the Promise of the
Father. Alleluia.' ^ When he came to the words, ' leave us
not orphans,' he burst mto tears, and wept much. And
after a time he began and repeated again what he had
commenced. Thus would he do all day long, and w^e who
listened wept and lamented with him. At times we read,
at times we mourned — nay rather we wept as we read.
Li such happiness we passed the quinquagesimal period^
until the aforesaid day ; and he joyed greatly, returning
thanks to God that he w^as deemed worthy to suffer such
affliction. He would often repeat, 'God scourgeth every
son whom He receiveth,'^ and a saying of Ambrose's,
' I have not lived in such wise as to be' ashamed to live
among you ; neither do I fear to die, for we have a
gracious Lord.'^
1 That is, in the vernacular poetry, such as that of Csedmon, no doubt.
The original Old English text follows, with a Latin translation. The ren-
dering given above is from our Select Translations from Old English
Poetry, p. 78.
2 The antiphon for the Second Vespers of Ascension Day. See Ps. 24. 10 ;
68. 4, 5, 33; John 14. 17, 18; Acts 1. 4; 2. 33.
3 That between Easter and Pentecost.
4 Heb. 12. 6.
5 Paulinus, Life of Ambrose, chap. 46.
258 LATIN WORKS BY OLD ENGLISH AVRITERS
During those days, in addition to the lessons we had
from him daily and his singing of the Psalms, he labored
upon two works worthy of remembrance: he translated
into our own tongue, for the profit of the Church of God,
the gospel of St. John from the beginning to the point
where it reads, ' But what are they among so many ? ' ^
and certain selections from the works of Bishop Isidore,
saying: 'I would not have my boys read a falsehood,
and labor herein without profit after my death.'
But when the Tuesday before our Lord's ascension
came, his breathing grew much more difficult, and a slight
swelling appeared in his feet. But he taught and dictated
cheerfully all that day, and now and again he would say,
among other things : ' Learn quickly, for I know not how
long I shall hold out, or whether mv Creator will take me
ere long.' It seemed to us, however, as though he knew
quite well the time of his departure. And thus he passed
the night, awake, in thanksgiving. And when morning
dawned — that is, Wednesday — he instructed us to write
with all speed on the work which we had begun, and we
did so until the third hour. But from the third hour we
walked in procession with the relics of the saints, as the
custom of that day demanded.^ One of us remained with
him, who said to him : ' There is still one chapter wanting
to the book you have dictated ; it seems hard however to
be asking more questions of you.' But he replied : ' No, it
is easy. Take your pen, and make ready, and write with
haste.' And he did so. At the ninth hour, he said to me :
* I have a few articles of value in my casket — pepper,
napkins, and incense. Run quickly and call the priests of
our monastery to me, that I may distribute among them
such little gifts as God has bestowed on me.' And I did so
1 John 6. 9. 2 See Diet. Chr. Antiq. s.v. Rogations.
CUTHBERT'S LETTER ON DEATH OF BEDE 259
with trepidation. He addressed one and all there present,
admonishing them and entreating them earnestly to say
prayers and masses for him — which they freely promised.
But all kept weeping and lamenting, especially because he
said that they must not think to see his face much longer
in this world ;^ but they rejoiced in that he said: 'It is
time, if it be the will of my Maker, for me to be released
from the body, and go unto Him who formed me out of
nothing, when as yet I was not. I have lived long, and
my merciful Judge has well ordered my life. The time
of my departure is at hand,^ for my soul desires to see my
King, even Christ in His beauty.'^ This and much else
he said for our edification, and passed his last day joyfully
until evening. And the boy named AYilbert, mentioned
above, said again : 'Dear master, there is yet one sentence
unwritten.' 'Very well,' said he, ' write.' And shortly the
boy said: 'It is done now.' 'You have spoken very truly,'
said he; 'it is finished.'* Take my head in your hands,
for it is highly pleasing to me to sit facing my holy place
where I was wont to pray, so that I may sit and call upon
my Father.' And thus upon the floor of his little cell,
chanting ' Gloria Patri et Filio et Spiritui Sancto,' and the
rest, he breathed his last.
And we must believe without doubt, inasmuch as he
had here labored continuously for the praise of God, that
angels bore his soul to the longed-for joys of heaven.
And all who witnessed the death of our father Bede de-
clared that they had never beheld any other expire with
such devotion and tranquilhty, for, as you have heard, so
long as his soul continued in his body he chanted the
'Gloria Patri' and other songs to the glory of the Lord,
1 Cf. Acts 20. 37, 38. 3 cf. Isa. 33. 17.
2 Cf . 2 Tim. 4. 6. 4 Cf . John 19. 30.
260 LATIN WORKS BY OLD ENGLISH WRITERS
and with uplifted hands ceased not to return thanks to
God- You must know that much could be told and
written about him, but my lack of learning in this tongue
shortens my account; nevertheless I purpose, with God's
assistance, to write more fully of him at my leisure, and
tell what I saw with my eyes and heard with my ears.
Chauncey B. Tinker
SELECTIONS FROM THE LETTERS OF ALCUIN
Alcuin, who was Charlemagne's great superintendent of
education, represents the influence of England in the restoration
of learning on the Continent during the ' earlier Renaissance.'
Born at York in Too, he received his education in the cathedral
school founded by Egbert, Bede's pupil (cf. p. 4), which is
called by West ' the best school of Western Christendom.' He
later became master of this school, in which post he continued
until the fame of his learning attracted the notice of Charlemagne.
At the invitation of the great king, he settled on the Continent
in 782, where for fourteen years he served as master of the pal-
ace school at Aix-la-Chapelle. Charles himself became one of his
pupils. The following anecdote is characteristic : ' On one occa-
sion when he [Charles] had been informed of the great learning
of Augustine and Jerome, he impatiently demanded of Alcuin,
<' Why can I not have twelve clerks such as these? "... Alcuin
was shocked. "What," he discreetly rejoined, "the Lord of
heaven and earth had but two such, and wouldst thou have
twelve?"' (West's Alcuin, p. 46).
One of the chief services of Alcuin to the Church, as well as to
Charlemagne, was in combating two Eastern heresies — Adoption-
ism and image-worship ; it was largely through Alcuin 's influence
that they were denounced at the Council of Frankfort (794).
Two years after this, Alcuin retired from his educational work
at court, and was made Abbot of Tours. Here he instituted the
strict Benedictine discipline, and eagerly continued his schemes
of ecclesiastical education (cf. p. 272). He died at Tours in 804.
SELECTIONS FROM THE LETTERS OF ALCUIN 261
The best biographies of Alcuin in English are West's (which
contains a bibliography; New York, 1892), and Stubbs', in the
Dictionary of Christian Biography. For the relation of Alcuin to
earlier mediaeval and to later education see Mullinger's interesting
Schools of Charles the Great (London, 1877).
Alcuin regarded all learning as his province, and taught such
diverse subjects as rhetoric and astronomy. His works are there-
fore very various, comprising commentaries on Scripture, theology,
orthography, grammar, poetry, and history. The only complete
edition of them is in Migne's Patrologia 100 and 101. Our trans-
lation is from the more critical, but unfortunately incomplete, J/onu-
menta Alcuiniana of Wattenbach and Duemmler (Berlin, 1873).
1. TO THE MOXKS OF WEARMOUTH AND JARROW
Ep. 27, written 793, after June 8, with reference to the
invasion of the Northmen. This was only six years after their
first recorded im-oad.
Let the Eule of St. Benedict ^ be frequently read in
the assembly of the brethren, and explained in your own
tongue, so that it may be understood by every one ; by
whose ordinance let every one amend his life, that you may
keep inviolably what you vowed to God before the altar,
according to the words of the prophet, 'Vow, and pay unto
the Lord your God,'^ for God hath no pleasure in an
unfaithful promise.^
Consider whom you have as a defender against the
heathen who have appeared about the bounds of your
maritime abode. Put not your trust in arms, but in God,
who never deserts those who trust in Him. Place not your
confidence in the flight of the flesh, but in the prayer of
your fathers ; you shall be indeed their children, if you
give diligence to follow in their footsteps. The holiness of
a place is of no advantage to those who do evil, but the
1 See pp. 278 ff . 2 pg. 76. 11. 3 Cf . Eccl. 6. 4.
262 LATIN WORKS BY OLD ENGLISH WRITERS
integrity of religion converts those wlio do well into saints,
and makes them worthy of the divine protection. Who is
not afraid of the terror which has befallen in the church
of St. Cuthbert ? Therefore amend your conduct, lest even
the righteous perish because of the sins of the profligate,
lest the vineyard of the Lord be given over to be gnawed
by the teeth of foxes, lest the feet of the heathen pass
through the sanctuaries of God. This would seem impious,
but how much worse were it if the rage of the devil should
lay waste the inmost parts of our hearts on account of our
vices. Enemies from without derive their power from the
enemies within. If God, because of our good and chaste
mode of life, dwells witliin our hearts, he will never allow
His enemies to ravage what is His.^ How great a multi-
tude of the Assyrian army perished because of a single
prayer of a righteous king, who was dear to God ! ^ Let
the chastening of others be a warning to you, and let the
tribulation of a few be the salvation of many.
You inhabit the seashore, when the plague first made
its descent. In us is fulfilled what was predicted aforetime
by the prophet : ' Out of the north evil shall break forth,' ^
and, ' From the Lord terrible praise shall come.' * Behold,
the flying robber has overrun the northern parts of our
island. We lament because our brethren have suffered.
Let us take heed lest the like happen to us. * Let us come
before the face of the Lord with confession, and let us cry
aloud before the Lord our Maker,' ^ that He, who is Creator
and Eedeemer, may also be Protector and Euler, and, in
return for good deserts and purity of religion, may defend
His flock with the right arm of His power.
1 Cf. Mon. Ale, p. 373. 2 o Kings 19. 14 ff., 35 ; Isa. 37. 14 ff., 36.
3 Jer. 1. 14. 4 Job 37. 22 (Vulgate inexactly quoted).
5 Ps. 95. 2, 6 (adapted).
SELECTIONS FROM THE LETTERS OF ALCUIN 263
Eemember what noble fathers you have had, and be not
degenerate sons of such ancestors. Behold the treasures of
books ; ^ contemplate the comeliuess of the churches, the
beauty of the buildmgs. Call to mmd the order of the
disciplmed life. How blessed is he who passes from these
fair habitations to the joys of the heavenly kingdom !
Let the youth accustom themselves to attend the praises
of the celestial King, not to dig out the holes of foxes, nor
to follow the coursings and doublings of hares. How im-
pious it is to neglect the service of Christ, and to follow the
trail of foxes ! Let the youth learn the sacred Scriptures,
that when they arrive at perfect age, they may teach others
in their turn. He who will not learn when he is young
1 Alcuin celebrates the library at York^which be well knew, in the famous
lines {De Sanctis Eboracensis Ecdesix 1535-61) :
Illic invenies veterum vestigia patrum,
Quidquid liabet pro se Latio Romanus in orbe,
Graicia vel quidquid transmisit clara Latinis,
Hebraicus vel quod populus bibit imbre superno,
Africa lucifluo vel quidquid lumiue sparsit.
Quod pater Hierouymus, quod sensit Hilarius atque
Ambrosius pra?sul, simel Augustinus, et ipse
Sanctus Atbanasius, quod Orosius edit avitus :
Quidquid Gregorius sumnius docet et Leo papa ;
Basilius quidquid, Fulgeutius atque coruscaut.
Cassiodorus item, Cbrysostomus atque Jobaunes.
Quidquid et Altbelmus docuit, quid Beda magister,
Quae Victorinus scripseve Boetius atque,
Historici veteres, Pompeius, Plinius, ipse
Acer Aristoteles, rbetor quoque Tullius ingens.
Quid quoque Sedulius, vel quid canit ipse Juveucus,
Alcimus et Clemens, Prosper, Paulinus, Arator,
Quid Fortunatus, vel quid Lactantius edunt.
Quae INIaro Virgilius, Statins, Lucanus et auctor,
Artis grammaticjB vel quid sci'ipsere magistri ;
Quid Probus atque Focas, Donatus Priscianusve,
Servius, Euticius, Pompeius, Comminianus.
Invenies alios perplures, lector, ibidem
Egregios studiis, arte et sermone magistros,
Plurima qui claro scripsere volumina sensu ;
Nomina sed quorum praesenti in carmine scribi
Longius est visum, quam plectra postulet usus.
See the translation in West's Alcuin, pp. M, 35.
264 LATIN WORKS BY OLD ENGLISH WRITERS
shall not teach when he is old. Eeflect upon Becle ^ the
priest, the noblest teacher of our time — what zeal he had
in the teaching of youth, and what praise he now has
among men, not to speak of the vastly greater glory of
his reward with God. By his example rouse up your sleep-
ing minds. . . .
To you, as sons of God, pertain nobility of conduct,
holiness of life, and modesty of apparel. 'A man's attire,
and excessive laughter, and gait,' according to Solomon,^
' show w^hat he is.' What is esteemed to be a credit to a
layman — a regard for his clothes — is recognized to be a
reproach to a person in orders, and especially to a monk.
The prince of the apostles prohibited even to women costly
garments and curled locks. ^ If this had not been a sin,
says Pope Gregory,^ the shepherd of the Church would
never have denied luxurious apparel to women.
2. TO ^THELHEARD, ARCHBISHOP OF CANTERBURY
Ep. 28, written 793, after June 8, with reference to the
invasion of the Northmen
You are, according to the witness of the Truth, the
light of all Britain, the salt of the earth, a city set upon
a hill, a candle put upon a stand.^ The blessed prince of
the apostles likewise attests : * Ye are an elect race, a royal
1 Alcuin always mentions Bede with respect. It is he who tells {Ep. 274)
this pretty story, writing to the monks of Wearmouth : ' Our master and
your patron, the blessed Bede, is reported to have said: "I know that
angels frequent the canonical hours and the assemblies of the brethren.
What if they do not find me there among the brethren ? Will they not be
obliged to say, ' Where is Bede? Why does he not come to the prescribed
prayers with the brethren ? ' " ' If we consider the frequency of these devo-
tions, and the multiplicity of Bede's labors, we shall better appreciate the
significance of this anecdote.
2 Ecclus. 19. 30 (Vulgate 27, modified). 4 jjom. in Evang. 1. 6.
3 Cf. 1 Pet. 3. 3. 6 cf. Matt. 5. 13-15.
SELECTIONS FROM THE LETTERS OF ALCUIN 265
priesthood.' ^ Through the urgency of jouv preaching we
shall become what the same epistle goes on to describe,
*A holy nation, a people for God's own possession,' in so far
as through you there is made known the power of Him
who called us all 'out of darkness mto His marvelous
light ; who in time past were no people, but now are the
people of God.' ^
Our forefathers, by the dispensation of God, though
heathen, were the first to possess themselves, by their mar-
tial valor, of this country. How great a shame is it then
that we should lose as Christians what they gained as
heathens ! This I say because of the scourge which has
lately fallen upon parts of our island, after having been in-
habited by our ancestors for nearly three hundred and fifty
years. We read in Gildas,^ the wisest of the Britons, that
they lost their country because of the rapine and greed of
their chiefs, because of the iniquity and injustice of their
judges, because of the indolence and sloth displayed by their
bishops in regard to preaching, and because of the luxury
and evil conduct of the people. Beware lest these same
vices should root themselves in our times.
3. FROM THE SO-CALLED CAROLINE BOOKS
The Second Nicene Council was convoked by the Empress Irene
in 787, and pronounced, or was understood by much of Western
Christendom to pronounce, in favor of image-worship. This
decree was repudiated by the Council of Frankfort in 794. A
contemporary chronicle asserts that Alcuin, at the request of
Charlemagne, was admitted a member of this Council. In 792,
according to Simeon of Durham, Charlemagne sent the Acts of
the Nicene Council to England for examination, and Alcuin under-
took to refute them, returning his refutation, with the Acts, to
1 1 Pet. 2. 9. 2 1 Pet. 2. 10.
3 Mon. Hist. Brit. 1. 10 ff. ; ef. p. 274, below.
266 LATIN WORKS BY OLD ENGLISH WRITERS
Charlemagne. Accordingly, some of the best scholars have at-
tributed the Caroline Books, which contain an argument against
the decisions of the Nicene Council, to Alcuin, and the most
critical editors of Alcuin 's letters have included an extract from
the work in their edition (Man. Ale. , pp. 220-242) as Ep. 31. For
their reasons, see the work cited, p. 220, and compare Hefele,
ConciUengeschichte 3. 651-673. For the relation of the iconoclastic
controversy to cross-worship in England, see Cook's edition of
The Dream of the Rood, p. Ivii ; Stevens, The Cross in the Literature
of the Anglo-Saxons, pp. 96, 97.
The passage which follows is from Lihri Carolini 2. 28.
How far the mystery of the Lord's cross differs from
the images with which they strive to compare it ! It is
worth while briefly to set forth by how many prerogatives
of excellence, by how many insignia of power, the mystery
of the Lord's cross surpasses those manufactured images
which they heedlessly endeavor to place on an equality
with it, though it can not be fully developed in our tribute
of praise. It was by this standard, and not by images, that
the ancient foe was defeated ; it was by these arms, and not
by the smearings of pigments, that the devil was over-
thrown ; by this, and not by pictures, the strongholds of
hell were robbed of their inhabitants ;i by this, not by those,
was mankind redeemed. From the cross, and not from
images, hung the Eansom of the world. It was this, and
not any image whatsoever, that was the minister of that
punishment appropriated to slaves ; this it is, and not a
picture, which is the ensign of our King, toward which
the legions of our host continually look ; this, and not a
combination of colors, is the banner of our Emperor, which
our cohorts follow into battle. In a word, it is no material
image, but the mystery of our Lord's cross, which is the
standard that we must follow on our battle-field, in order
1 Cf . The Harrowing of Hell, p. 224.
SELECTIONS FROM THE LETTERS OF ALCUIN 267
that we may fight the more valiantly; the arms with
which we shall be able to maintain our liberty ; the ram-
part wliich shall protect us from the inroads of the pur-
suing foe.^
4. TO THE MONKS AT YORK
Ep. 34, written about 795.
0 fathers and brethren beloved beyond all others, do not
forget me. I shall be yours, as in life so in death, and
perhaps God will be so merciful to me that, as you have
nurtured my childhood, you will entomb my old age. And
if another place shall be assigned to my body, yet to my
soul — whatever place it may inherit — to my soul there
shall be granted, as I trust, by your holy intercessions and
the mercy of God, a rest together with you, since — as our
young man Seneca^ reports that he saw — w^e believe that
the souls of our brotherhood are assembled in one and the
same place of joy. And although the diversity of merit
may cause one or another to rejoice with a fuller measure
of bliss, may the equality of eternity make us all hve in
happiness ! For just as one sun shines upon all, though it
is not equally seen by all because of the varying distance
of the eye, so everlasting bhss shall be bestowed upon all
the righteous in the kingdom of God, though the height of
merit shall crown some with a greater glory .^
iln a letter to the Abbess Gisela, sister of Charlemagne, written in
September, 798, Alcuin says : ' The cross which you sent me pleases me
greatly.' Stevens says {op. cit., p. 25) : ' It is written in the life of Alcuin
that whenever he saw the cross he bowed towards it, whispering these
words: " Tuam crucem adoramus, Domine, et tuam gloriosam recolimus
passionem." ' Ceolfrith (cf. p. 250), when about to start on a journey, ac-
cording to Bede, * adorat crucem,' or, as an older life has it, ' adorat
ad crucem.'
2 For his vision, see Alcuin's De Sanctis Ehoracensis Ecdesise GOO ff.
3 See Dante's Paradiso, especially 1. 103 ff. ; 3. 55-84, 97-8 ; 6. 118 ff.
268 LATIN WORKS BY OLD ENGLISH WRITERS
5. TO ARNO, BISHOP OF SALZBURG
Ep. 71, written 796, after August 10. How the Huns should
be taught the truths of Christianity.
Our Lord Jesus Christ commanded his disciples, saying : ^
' Go ye therefore, and teach all nations, baptizing them in
the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy
Ghost ; teaching them to observe all things whatsoever I
have commanded you.' In these few words he revealed
the manner of all holy preaching. He uses the word teach
twice, and the word hwptize once. First of all he com-
manded to teach the Catholic faith, and then, after that
had been accepted, to baptize in the name of the holy
Trinity ; and finally, to indoctrinate with the precepts
of the gospel those who were now imbued with faith and
cleansed by holy baptism. . . . Hence it was that the
wretched race of the Saxons in so many cases lost the sac-
rament of baptism, because they had never had the foun-
dation of faith in their hearts. Moreover, we are to know
that faith, according to St. Augustine,^ is of the will, and
not of constraint. How can a man be forced to believe
what he doesn't believe ? He can be forced to baptism,
but not to faith. ... A man endowed with a reasonable
mind is therefore to be instructed, and to be attracted
by preaching of divers sorts to acknowledge the truth of
our holy faith. But above everything else, the mercy of
Almighty God is to be besought for him ; for the tongue
of the teacher is of no avail unless divine grace imbues
the heart of the listener. The Truth Himself has said : ^
' No man can come to me except the Father, which hath
sent me, draw him.' And in order that we may under-
stand that the holy Trinity is operative equally in the
1 Matt. 28. 19, 20. 2 Ep. 217. 3 John fi. 44.
SELECTIONS FROM THE LETTERS OF ALCUIN 269
salvation of men, the Lord Himself says in another place : ^
*No man cometh unto the Father but by me.' Likewise
of the Holy Ghost he ^ays : ^ ' Except a man be born of
water and of the Spirit, he can not enter into the king-
dom of God.' So that which the priest effects visibly on
the body by means of water, the Holy Spirit effects invisibly
in the soul through faith. . . .
There are some infirmities which are better remedied
by sweet medicines than by bitter, while certain others are
better treated by bitter draughts than by sweet. Hence the
teacher of God's people, while he must shine in the house
of God with the lamps of all the virtues, yet must prevail
most of all by an insight and discretion which shall enable
him to know what pertains to each person, sex, age, under-
takmg, and even occasion. All these things the blessed
Gregory, the celebrated teacher, has discussed most thor-
oughly in his Pastoral Care} discriminating between per-
sons, confirming by illustrations, and corroborating the
whole by the authority of the divine Scriptures. To this
book, 0 holy bishop, I refer you, begging you to have it
frequently in your hands, and to keep it in your heart.
6. TO EANBALD H, ARCHBISHOP OF YORK
Ep. 72, written 796, after August 10
Let not the world's pomp elate you, nor luxurious food
enfeeble you, nor vanity of raiment effeminate you, nor
tongues of flatterers beguile you, nor hostility of slanderers
disturb you. Let not sad things break you down, nor glad
things puff you up. Be not a reed shaken with the wind,*
nor a flower bowed with the breath of the tempest; be
1 John 14. 6. 3 See pp. 100 fif .
2 John 3. 5. * Cf. Matt. 11. 7 ; Lk. 7. 24.
270 LATIN WORKS BY OLD ENGLISH WRITERS
neither a ruined wall nor a house built upon the sand;^
but be a temple of the living God, founded on the soHd rock,
and dwelt in by the Spirit himself, the Comforter. . . .
To those of the better sort show yourself meek and
lowly, but hard and unyielding to the proud, being made
all things to all men, that you may gain all.^ In your
hand you have honey and wormwood ; let him who will,
eat of either. Let him who wishes to be fed with pious
preaching taste the honey, but let him who needs severe
rebuke drink of the wormwood, yet in such manner that
he may hope for the honey of pardon, if so be that roseate
confusion be the forerunner of penitence.
Let everytliing that you do be done decently and in or-
der.^ Have times set apart for reading ; let prayer have its
stated hours, and the solemnities of the mass take place
at due seasons. . . . Every high priest taken from among
men is ordained for men in things pertaining to God.^
Aaron stood with the censer of his office between the
living and the dead,^ that the wrath of God might no
longer burn among the people. So the priest of God's
word must be both the preacher of His will to the peo-
ple and the intercessor to God for the people, and so, as
it were, a mediator between God and men.^ . . .
Regard yourself not as a lord of the world, but as a
steward. Let not the number of your kinsmen make you
greedy of gain, as though you had to heap up for their
future inheritance ; you will never lack a pretext for heap-
ing up, if once the love of money, which is the root of all
evil,'^ sets your touchwood on fire. Christ is the best of
proprietors ; no one will make a better guardian of your
1 Cf. Matt. 7. 26. * Cf. Heb. 5. 1. 6 Cf. 1 Tim. 2. 5.
2 Cf. 1 Cor. 9. 22. 5 cf. Num. 16. 48. ' cf. 1 Tim. 6. 10.
3 1 Cor. 14. 40.
SELECTIONS FROM THE LETTERS OF ALCUIN 271
treasure. The hand of the poor is the storehouse of Christ.
Whatever of your choice things you decide to entrust to
Him, send by the hand of the wretched. Let your alms
be twofokl — in saving the souls of the needy, and in
ministering to their bodies. ... * The Lord loveth a
cheerful giver.' ^ . . .
Let your consecrated prudence provide teachers for the
youth and for the clergy. Let each group have its own
separate place — one for those who read, one for those
who sing, and another for those who write. Each of these
groups should have its own chief, lest, growing idle, they
wander about, or play silly games, or give themselves up
to some other form of folly. Let your foresight, beloved
son, consider all these things, so that in the chief seat of
our nation there may be found a well-spring of all goodness
and learning, and the thirsty traveler or tlie lover of
churchly discipline may be able to draw therefrom what-
ever his soul desires.
7. TO CHARLEMAGNE
Ep. 78, written end of 796 or beginning of 797
Not only ought I, the least of the servants of our Saviour,
to rejoice at the prosperity and eminence of your glorious
power, but all the holy Church of God should with one
consent of love offer thanks to the Lord God Almighty,
who of His grace has granted to the people of Christ, in
these last and perilous times of the world, so pious, pru-
dent, and righteous a ruler and defender, zealous with all
assiduity to reform what is amiss, to strengthen w^hat is
right, and to exalt what is holy, rejoicing to publish the
name of the Lord God most high through many regions
1 2 Cor. 9. 7.
272 LATIN WORKS BY OLD ENGLISH WRITERS
of the world, and endeavoring to kindle the light of the
Catholic faith in the utmost parts. . , .
I, your Flaccus,^ in accordance with your exhortation
and will, do my utmost in the buildings of St. Martin's ^ to
provide some with the honey of Holy Scripture, to intox-
icate otliers with the old wine of ancient studies, to feed
others with the apples of grammatical subtlety, and to
enlighten still others with the marshaling of the stars —
which suggests the work of a painter who seeks to beau-
tify for some patron the vaulting of an edifice.^ Thus I
am made many things to many men,* that I may train up
many to the advancement of the holy Church of God and
to the adornment of your imperial reign, lest the grace of
Almighty God bestowed upon me,^ and the bounty of your
goodness, be in vain. In some measure, however, I, your
servant, lack the choicer books of scholarly erudition which
I had in my own country through the devoted industry
of my teacher,^ and even by my own slighter exertions.
I say these things to your Excellency to the end that, if
perchance it should please your intent, so desirous of all
wisdom, I may be permitted to send over some of our
young men to obtain everything we need, and bring back
into France the flowers of Britain. In this way not only
will York be a garden enclosed, but Tours will have its
outflowings of Paradise and its pleasant fruits, so that the
south wind may come and blow upon the gardens of the
Loire, and the spices thereof may flow out.^ . . .
1 The members of the inner circle of Charlemagne's court called one
another by names supposed to characterize their qualities; thus Charle-
magne was David, etc. See West, Alcuin, p. 44.
2 At Tours. ^ Cf . note 2, p. 270.
3 Probably the apse of a church. ^ 1 Cor. 15. 10.
6 Albert, Archbishop of York from 767 to 778. For some of these books,
see p. 263, above.
7 Cf. Song of Sol. 4. 12, 13, 16.
SELECTIONS FROM THE LETTERS OF ALCUIX 273
As far as my moderate abilities will permit, I will not
be slothful in sowing the seeds of wisdom among your serv-
ants 1 in these parts, being mindful of the sentence : ^ ' In
the mornmg sow thy seed, and in the evening withhold
not thy hand, for thou knowest not whether shall prosper,
either this or that, or whether they both shall be alike
good.' In the morning, when my studies, because of my
time of life, were flourishing, I sowed in Britain ; now, as
my blood grows chill in the evening of my days, I cease
not to sow in France, hoping that both, by the grace of
God, may spring up.
8. TO CCENWULF, KING OF MERCIA
Ep. 80, written 797
Let the words of God be read at priestly banquets.
There it is fitting to listen to a reader, not to a harper ; to
the discourses of the Fathers, not the songs of the heathen.
What concord hath Ingeld ^ with Christ ? * The house is
too narrow to hold both. The King of heaven desires not
to hold communion with heathens and lost souls — so-called
kings though they be ; the King eternal rules in the heavens,
while such a lost heathen laments in hell. Hear in your
halls the voices of those that read, not in the market-places
the crowd of those that laugh.
9. TO THE PEOPLE OF CANTERBURY
Ep. 86, written 797
Let the nobles of the nation rule their lordships with
the help of their councils, and preside over the people
i The brethren of St. Martin's. 2 EccI. 11. 6.
3 A king celebrated in songs ; see Zeitschrift filr Deutsches Alierthwn
15. 314. 4Cf. 2 Cor. 6. 15.
274 LATIN WORKS BY OLD ENGLISH WRITERS
with justice, in their decisions loving the laws of their an-
cestors rather than money, which subverts the words of the
righteous ; and let them perform manfully, with one con-
sent, what shall be for your benefit. Place over yourselves
rulers famous for their nobleness, pious with the dignity
of character, honorable with the beauty of righteousness,
so that the divine mercy may vouchsafe to govern, preserve,
and exalt your race.
A great danger threatens this island and the people liv-
ing in it. A heathen people — and this was never known
before — has accustomed itself to ravage our coasts with
piratical depredations. Yet the peoples of England, her
kingdoms and her kings, are at variance with one another.
Hardly one of the ancient stock of our kings is left — I say
it with tears — and the more uncertain their lineage the
less is their courage.^ In like manner, the teachers of truth
have perished throughout the churches of Christ. Almost
every one follows the vanities of the world, and hates regular
discipline, even the soldiers caring more for greed than for
righteousness. Eead Gildas, the wisest of the Briton s,^ and
you will see from what causes the ancestors of the Britons
lost their kingdom and country ; then if you will consider
yourselves, you will find almost the same things there.
Fear for yourselves the declaration of the Truth Himself :^
* If a kingdom be divided against itself, that kingdom can
not stand.' See what division there is among the peoples
and races of England. They are lacking in themselves
because they do not keep peace and faith with one another.
Call back to yourselves, if you can make up your minds
to it, your bishop ^thelheard, a wise and venerable man ;
and according to his counsel improve the condition of your
kingdom, and amend in conduct what is displeasing to God.
1 Cf. Mon. Ale, p. 373. 2 cf. p. 265. ^ Mark 3. 24.
SELECTIONS FROM THE LETTERS OF ALCUIN 275
10. TO THE MONKS OF SALZBURG
Ep. 90, written 795-7
0 how liappy is the life of the monk — acceptable to
God, lovely in the sight of angels, honorable before men !
He who lives it faithfully among men will without doubt
reign joyously among the angels. It was initiated by the
primitive church in Judea, acting through the apostles, for
they, we are told, had all things common, neither said any of
them that aught of the things which he possessed was his
own.i This principle, I believe, should be followed not only
with respect to worldly substance, but also with refer-
ence to spiritual desires : every one should covet the same
thing, and pursue the good of obedience rather than the
accomplishment of his own will. If Christ came not to do
His own will,2 as the gospel testifies, but the will of the
Father, how much more should a monk do, not his own will,
but that of Christ — not slothful in God's work, but dili-
gent ; not regarding so much what is commanded as how he
may perform what is commanded, lest in any way the evil of
murmuring should grow in any.^ If certain of God's people
perished in the wilderness because of the sin of murmur-
ing,* by how much greater a spiritual vengeance shall a
monk of a monastery be smitten, if he does not fear to
accustom his mind to the evil of murmuring !
11. TO ARNO, ARCHBISHOP OF SALZBURG
Ep. 107, written 798 (?)
Do you, 0 concordant brother, have always in mind the
eternal days, and run with patience the course which Christ
1 Cf . Acts 4. 32. 3 This suggests the Benedictine Rule, chap. 5.
2 Cf. John 6. 38. 4 Cf. Num. 14. 2, 29; 26. 64, 65; 1 Cor. 10. 10.
276 LATIN WORKS BY OLD ENGLISH WRITERS
set before jou,^ seeing that he who foUows Him walks
not in darkness, but shall have the light of life.^ Let Him
be to you food and drink, love and glory. Let not worldly
ambition subvert your heart, neither the blandishments of
flatterers, nor the shows of vanity, nor the fear of the pow-
erful, nor the threats of the cruel ; but build your house on
the solid rock, from which no storms can drag you. Stand
unmoved, despising the tongues of slanderers, and caring
naught for the speech of flatterers. And lead with you into
this state of life, by the aid of heavenly grace, as many as
you can, using prayers, admonitions, chastenmgs, and ex-
amples ; that so you may appear in the sight of the Lord
your God with manifold fruit of your labor, being thus
rendered worthy of a manifold reward.
12. TO CHARLEMAGNE
Ej). 170, written September or October, 801
Blessed is the nation for whom the divine clemency
has provided so pious and prudent a ruler ! Happy the
people which is ruled by a wise and pious prince; as the
Platonic proverb says:^ 'Those states would be happy where
either philosophers — that is, lovers of wisdom — should
reign, or kings should devote themselves to philosophy.'
With that no wisdom in the world can be compared. This
it is wliich exalts him of low degree, makes glorious him
who is already powerful, and is praiseworthy in all ; in this
is the ornament and beauty of the present life, and the
glory of perpetual bliss. That only is true wisdom which
renders blessed the days that never end.
1 Cf. Heb. 12. 1. 2 cf. John 8. 12.
3 Probably derived from Boethius, Be Cons. Phil. 1, pr. 4; cf. Plato,
Rep. 5. 473. Two years earlier Alcuin had written to Charlemagne {£p.
110) : * Perhaps a new Athens shall be brought to pass in France, only far
superior to the old.' Alcuin again refers to Plato, Ejyp. 240, 241.
SELECTIONS FROM THE LETTERS OF ALCUIN 277
I have always recognized it as my privilege, my lord
David/ to love and to commend to others this your highest
preoccupation. You have striven to incite all men to learn
it, nay, to prevail upon them with rewards and honors ; and
have endeavored to bring together from various parts of the
world those who loved this wisdom, in order to enlist
them as helpers in your own beneficent purpose. In which
number you took pains to receive me also from the fur-
thest confines of Britain, though the lowest bond-slave of
this sacred wisdom. Would that I were as useful a servant
in the house of God as I am prompt in obeying your will !
13. TO EANBALD II, ARCHBISHOP OF YORK
Ep. 173, written 801, after April 5
Do not meditate flight, but fix your hopes upon the
crown.2 Stand valiantly in the front rank as a standard-
bearer of Christ's camp. If the standard-bearer flees, what
shall the army do ? If the trumpet is silent in the camp,
who shall prepare himself to the battle ? ^ If the general
is fearful, how shall the common soldier be saved ? ' Ye
have not yet resisted unto blood,' says the apostle;* ye have
forgotten your consolation ; God chastens every son whom
He receives. The son must not be cast down because of
the chastening of his father's kindness. ' The wicked gnash-
eth upon the just with his teeth,' says the Scripture;^ 'but
the Lord shall break their teeth,' ^ and shall bring their
violence to naught. Read diligently how the old Matta-
thias,^ when his death was now at hand, exhorted his sons
to play the men, and to fight valiantly against the enemies
of God; how the saints have been crowned through
1 See note 1, p. 272. 4 cf. Heb. 12. 4 ff. 6 Cf. Ps. 58. 6.
2 Cf . Rev. 2. 10. 5 Cf. Ps. 37. 12. 7 1 Mace. 2. 49 ff.
3 Cf. 1 Cor. 14. 8.
278 LATIN WORKS BY OLD ENGLISH WRITERS
tribulations ; and how small — or rather, how naught —
is the glory of the sinner. . . .
But there is no need to make long search for illustra-
tions from ancient times, when those of the present will
suffice. You yourself have seen how the kings ^ and princes
have perished who arrayed themselves against your pred-
ecessors 2 and agamst the Church of Christ.
Albert S. Cook
SELECTIONS FROM THE BENEDICTINE RULE
Perhaps it is hardly too much to say that no Hterary production
since the time of the apostles has contributed so much to Western
civilization as the Benedictine Rule ; and yet its author probably
never regarded it as a literary production at all.
' Benedict of Nursia was born near Rome at the end of the
fifth century. When a boy of fourteen he renounced the world, and
after many changes of abode, finally settled at Monte Cassino, and
became the founder of that famous monastery [529 a.d,], destroy-
ing the temple of Apollo that stood on its site. Benedict died in
543 A.D. Pope Gregory the Great (594-604), the first real organ-
izer among the popes, pressed the monks into the service of the
Church. It was the Rule of Benedict that he chose for his guid-
ance, imposing it on a monastery that he himself had founded in
Rome. By the time of Charlemagne (768-814), Benedict's Rule
seems to have superseded all others. It afterwards became the
basis of new orders, chief among which were Cluny and Citeaux.
In the thirteenth century the Benedictines were superseded in
great part by the mendicant orders, the Franciscans and Domini-
cans. From the fourteenth century on, they were famous more
for their learning than for their piety. The famous Congregation
of St. Maur, founded in 1618, was a congregation of Benedictines,
and to them we owe the editing of many most valuable historical
1 iElfwald, King of Northumbria, d. September 23, 788; ^thelred, April
18, 796.
2 Albert (767-778) and Eanbald I (778-796).
SELECTIONS FROM THE BENEDICTINE RULE 279
sources. . . . The monks are still famous for their classical
learning.' ^
Elsewhere we are told : ' They were the only scholars of the
Middle Ages; it was they who copied, and by this means pre-
served for posterity, the greater number of the literary master-
pieces of Greece and Rome.'
In Montalembert's Monks of the West the achievements of the
Benedictines are set forth m ith admirable vigor and lucidity ; see
especially Book IV. Monte Cassino, near Naples, the first Bene-
dictine monastery, continues to be a shrine of pilgrimage for
high-minded persons of all faiths ; see, for example, Longfellow's
Monte Cassino, and Andrew D. White's recent Autobiography (New
York, 1905), 2. 417-8. It now contains an interesting series of
frescoes, executed by monks of Benediktbeuren in Bavaria, rep-
resenting scenes in the traditional life of the founder. The j)res-
ent abbot is an American, P. Bonifazio Krug.
For an analysis and estimate of the Rule, see Encycl. Brit. 16.
704 ft".
1. THE FOUR KINDS OF MONKS
Chap. 1
It is evident that there are four kinds of monks. The
first is that of the Cenobites, who live in a monastery,
warring under one rule or one abbot. The second is that
of the Anchorites or Hermits. These, not in the fervor of
a recent conversion, but by a long test in a monastery,
having learned, by the aid of many others, to contend
against the devil; having been trained in the ranks of
their brethren for the single combats of the desert, and
being strong enough to dispense with the assistance of
others, are able, God helping them, to fight with their
single hand and arm against the vices of the flesh and of
their thoughts. The third kind, which is indeed detestable,
is that of the Sarabaites. These, having been tested by no
rule, nor under the direction of a master as gold is tried
1 Henderson, Select Historical Documents of the Middle Ages, pp. 267-8.
280 LATIX WORKS BY OLD ENGLISH WRITERS
in the furnace^ — uay, rather, having been softened like
lead — show by their works that they keep faith with the
world, and that their tonsure is a lie in the sight of God.
One may see them shutting themselves up by twos and
threes, or even singly, with no shepherd, not in their
Lord's sheepfolds, but in their own. They have no law
but the satisfaction of their desires, for whatever they
thuik or wish they call holy, and whatever they do not
care for they regard as unlawful.^ The fourth kind of
monks is that which is called Vagabonds {Gyrovagi).
These spend their whole life in passiag from one province
to another, staying three or four days in each monastery,
always wandering and never fixed, the slaves of their
passions and addicted to the pleasures of the table, in all
tilings worse than the Sarabaites. But it is better to pass
over in silence the wretched conduct of such monks than
to say more about them.
2. CONCERNING BRETHREN W^HO ARE SICK
Chap. 36
Before all and above all, care shall be taken of the sick,
and they shall be served as if they were Christ in person.
He Himself has said : *I was sick, and ye visited me,'^ and
again : ' Inasmuch as ye have done it unto one of the least
of these my brethren, ye have done it unto me.' ^ On the
other hand, let the sick consider that it is to the honor of
God that they are being served, and let them not annoy
by unnecessary demands their brethren who serve them.
Yet they are to be borne with in patience, since on their
iCf. 1 Pet. 1. 7; Rev. 3. 18.
2 AVe are reminded of the inscription for Rabelais's imaginarj^ Abbey of
Theleme : ' Do as you please.' ^ Matt, 25. 36. * Ibid.
SELECTIONS FROM THE BENEDICTIXE RULE 281
account one gains a greater recompense. Let the abbot
see to it then, with all diligence, that they suffer from no
neglect. A room by itseK shall be set apart for the sick
brethren, and for their service a brother who is God-fearing,
diligent, and careful. Baths shall be offered to the sick as
often as it is expedient ; but to the healthy, and especially
the young, they shall be allowed less frequently. Even
the use of meat shall be granted to the sick and to those
who are really weak, in order to repair their strength ; but
as soon as they are restored, they shall return to their
abstinence from meat. The abbot shall do his utmost en-
deavor that the cellarer and the nurse show no neglect to
the sick, since he is responsible for any fault committed
by his subordinates.
3. THE MEASURE OF FOOD
Chap. 39
For the daily meal, as well at the sixth as at the ninth
hour, we believe that two cooked dishes are sufficient for
each table, having regard to the infirmities of various ones,
since he who can not eat of the one may make his meal
off the other. In this way, two cooked dishes shall suffice
for the brethren, a third being added of fruits or tender
vegetables, if they can be had. A full pound of bread is
to suffice for a day, whether there be only one meal, or
dinner and supper. On the days when there is supper,
the cellarer shall reserve a third of the pound for supper.
If any unusual labor is undertaken, it shall be in the
power and will of the abbot to add somewhat, if it seems
expedient, taking care always to prevent excess, so that
the monk may never be seized with indigestion, for
nothing is so contrary to the character of any Christian
282 LATIN WORKS BY OLD ENGLISH WRITERS
whatever as excess in eatiiig, according to the word of
our Lord : ' Take heed to yourselves, lest at any time your
hearts be overcharged with surfeitmg.' ^ As to the younger
boys, they are not to have the same quantity of food as the
older ones, moderation being observed in all things. Every
one shall wholly abstain from the flesh of quadrupeds, ex-
ception bemg made only in the case of the very weak and
of the sick.
4. LABOR AND READING
Chap. 48
Idleness is the enemy of the soul. At certain times,
therefore, the brethren are to be occupied in manual labor,
while at other stated hours they are to apply themselves
to reading about divine things. On tliis account we think
it incumbent upon us to regulate the twofold division of
the day as follows. From Easter until the first day of
October the brethren shall go out early in the mornmg,
and work at what may be needful from the first hour
till the fourth, while from the fourth hour tiU the sixth
shall be devoted to reading. After tlie sixth hour, having
risen from table, they shall rest on their beds in per-
fect silence ; if any one wishes to read, he is to read to
himself, and not disturb any one else. Nones shall be a
little advanced, to the middle of the eighth hour ; then
they shall return to the assigned task till vespers. If
the necessity of the place, or poverty, require that the
brethren employ themselves with gathering crops, let
them not be cast down ; for when they live by the work
of their hands they are truly monks, like our fathers and
the apostles. Let everything be done with moderation,
however, because of the weak-hearted. From the first
1 Lk. 21. :u.
SELECTIONS FROM THE BENEDICTINE RULE 283
day of October till the beginning of Lent they shall give
themselves to reading till the end of the second hour.
When the second hour is over, terce shall be said, after
wliich they shall all busy themselves with the prescribed
labor till nones. At the first stroke of nones, every one
shall quit his work, and be ready for the second stroke.
After the meal they shall devote themselves to reading
or to the Psalms. During Lent they shall read from
early morning until the end of the third hour, and shall
then busy themselves with the prescribed labor till the
end of the tenth hour. In this season of Lent every
one shall receive a book from the library, which he
shall read through consecutively ; these books are to be
given out at the beginning of Lent. Above all, let care
be taken to delegate one or two of the elders, who shall
go through the monastery at the hours which the brethren
give to reading, in order to see if there be not found some
listless brother who is idle, or engaged in trifling con-
versation, instead of being intent upon reading, in this
way not only injuring himself but interrupting others. If
such a one is caught — which God forbid ! — he shall be
admonished once and twice. If he does not amend, he
shall be subjected to regular punishment in such a way
as to intimidate the rest. One brother shall not join
another at unreasonable hours. On Sunday the brethren
shall all engage in reading, with the exception of those
who are employed in various duties. If any one should
prove so negligent that he either w^ill not or can not read
or meditate, some task shall be set him which he can
perform, that he be not idle. To sick or delicate brethren
there shall be assigned such an occupation or handicraft
as shall keep them out of idleness, but shall not weigh
them down with excess of labor, lest they run away.
284 LATIN WORKS BY OLD ENGLISH WRITERS
5. ARTIFICERS IN A MONASTERY
Chap. 57
If there are artificers in a monastery, they are to ply
their arts with all humility and reverence, if so the abbot
allow. 1 But if any of them grows vain on account of his
knowledge of the art, as if he were conferring a benefit
upon the monastery, he shall be removed from the prac-
tice of his art, and shall not again resume it unless he
humble himself, and again receive a command to that
effect from the abbot. If anything made by the artisans is
to be sold, let them look well to it that those through
whose hands the articles pass commit no fraud upon the
monastery. Let them be mindful of Ananias and Sap-
phira,^ lest the death which these suffered in their bodies,
they, and all who practise deception with reference to
the goods of the monastery, should experience in their
souls. Let not the evil of avarice creep into the price
for wliich articles are sold, but on the contrary let the
price be always a little lower than that charged by secular
persons, that in all things God may be glorified.
6. RANK IN THE COMMUNITY
Chap. 63
The brethren shall observe their degrees in the mon-
astery, according as the date of their conversion or the
merits of their Life shall determine, or as the abbot shall
1 This was the spirit which, as Ruskin says (Seven Lamps of Archi-
tecture: Lamp of Poiver, end), 'once lighted with white lines of cloisters
the glades of the Alpine pine, and raised into ordered spires the wild rocks
of the Norman sea ; which gave to the temple gate the depth and darkness
of Elijah's Horeh cave ; and lifted, out of the populous city, gray cliffs of
lonely stone, into the midst of sailing birds and silent air.'
2 Cf . Acts 5. 1 ff .
SELECTIONS FROM THE BENEDICTINE RULE 285
decree. However, the abbot is not to sow trouble in the
flock committed to liim, nor make unjust arrangements,
as if his power might be arbitrarily exercised. Let him
rather reflect continually on the account that he shall
render to God for all his judgments and all his deeds.
According to the order which he has determined, or
which the brethren have observed, they shall go to the
pax and to the communion, begin the Psalms, and take
their places in the choir. No account shall 'anywhere be
made of age in a decision as to rank, since Samuel ^ and
Daniel,^ while still boys, judged their elders. Except
those, then, whom, as we have said, the abbot shall have
advanced or degraded for good and sufficient reasons, the
brethren shall be arranged according to the time of their
conversion. For example, he who arrived at the monas-
tery at the second hour of the day, whatever his age or
dignity, must know that his place is below him who
came at the first hour. . . . The younger are to honor
their elders, and the elder to love the younger. AMien
they speak to one another, no one shall call another
merely by his name, but the elder shall give the younger
the name of brothers, and the younger shall give the
elder that of nonni, which denotes the respect due to a
father. The abbot, being regarded as standing in the place
of Jesus Christ, shall be called Master and Abbot, not
because he makes such a claim, but through honor and
love for Christ. Let him reflect on this, and show liim-
self worthy of such honor. Wlierever the brethren meet,
the younger shall ask a blessing of the elder. Wlien an
elder passes, the younger shall rise and give him a seat,
nor shall he presume to sit down unless his elder bid
him, so that it may be fulfilled as it is written, ' In honor
1 Cf . 1 Sam. 3. 15 ff . 2 cf . Dan. 4. 27.
286 LATIN WORKS BY OLD ENGLISH WRITERS
preferring one another.' ^ Boys, whether younger or older,
shall keep their due places without confusion in the ora-
tory and at table. But with these exceptions, wherever
they are, they shall be under the charge and oversight of
the brethren until they attain the age of discretion.
Albert S. Cook
1 Rom. 12. 10.
INDEX
abbess, see Hild.
abbots, 250-251 ; choice of, 275 ;
deposedby AVilliamI,75; duties
of, 281 ; rank and title of, 285.
acting, 213,
Adam, first to leave hell, 226;
speaks in hell, 220.
^Ifric, 149 ff. ; account of him-
self, 152-153; his method of
translating, 150 ff.
^thelred, King, the earlier, 89, 90.
^thelred. King, the later, 152,
192 n., 193, 196.
^thelstan, Alfred's assistant, 93.
^thelwold, 152.
^tna, 120, 121.
Africa, 114.
Aidan, 37 ff. ; his almsgiving, 41 ;
character of, 43 ; criticises his
predecessor in England, 40 ;
death of, 42, 236 ; teaches Ab-
bess Hild, 52.
Alaric, 117.
Alcuin, 4, 100 Ji., 261 ff.; life of,
260 n. , 267 ; his nickname, 272 ;
works on, 261 n.
ale, 113, 114, 122, 185.
Alexander the Great, 114.
Alfred, King, life of: builds a
navy, 71 ; captures a Danish
banner, 70 ; collects laws, 76 n.,
78 ; death of, 71 ; diseases, 89,
96 ff . ; erects buildings, 97 ; god-
father to Guthrum, 70 ; king
of all the English, 71 ; leads at
Ashdown, 90 ; retreats to the
woods, 70 ; youth, 87.
character of: desire to in-
struct, 96 ; friendly to the poor,
98 ; generous, 71, 91, 92, 94-95*;
interested in foreigners, 91, 92,
101, 109; a just judge, 98 ff. ;
kingly ideals, 101, 122 ; love of
hunting, 88, 91, 133; love of
learning, 88-89 ; love of poetry,
87-88, 91 ; reliance on council-
ors, 78 ; religious, 91, 92, 96,
131 ; rewards submission, 94 ;
severe, 99.
literary work of: assistants
in, 85 n., 92, 93; Encheiridion,
95-96 ; father of English prose,
85 n.; mentioned by ^Elfric,
153; nature of, 85 n., 102-103;
translation, method of, 85 m.,
101 n., 103, 108)1., 116 w., 117,
132 ; works on, 86 n. See also
Augustine, Boethius, Gregory,
Orosius.
All Saints, 161.
almsgiving, 39, 41, 59, 63, 195,
241.
ambition, despised by Christ, 105.
Ambrose, St., 263 n.; quoted,
253 >i., 255.
anchorites, see hermits.
angels, 48-49, 202, 235-236; as-
sist Cuthbert, 241 ; Britons re-
semble, 30 ; creation of, 187 ;
fallen, 161 ; nature of, 161-162.
Anglo-Saxons, come to Britain,
14 ff., 67 ; continental home of,
15, 232 ; descendants of, 15 ;
missionaries sent to, 18 ; prey
287
288
IXDEX
upon the Britons, 16 ; settle-
ments in Britain, 16.
Antichrist, 194, 200, 203, 219 n.,
227.
antiphon, sung by Bede, 257 ; used
by Augustine, 21 n.
Apollonius of Tyre, 207 ff.
apostolic life, 21.
architecture, in England, 8, 34,
^ 91, 97, 263 ; Roman style intro-
' duced, 243.
Aristotle, 263 n.
art, see architecture, pictures.
Ashdown, battle of, 89 ff.
Asser, 86 ff., 103 ; his Life of King
Alfred, authenticity of, and
style of, 86-87 ; reader to the
king, 94 ; rewarded by the king,
94-95.
Assyria, 108 n.
astronomy, 272 ; studied in Eng-
land, 46.
Athelstan, 68.
Athens, 276 n.
Augustine, St., the elder, 108 n.,
154 n., 260 n., 268 ; Alfred's ac-
count of, 133 ; his De Civitate
Dei, 108 n. ; his Be Videndo Deo,
140 ; his Soliloquies, quoted,
172 n. ; selections from, 132 ff.
Augustine, St., the younger, ar-
rival in England, 19 ff. ; manner
of life, 21 ; preaches to King
^thelbert, 20 ; receives liberty
to preach, 21 ; sent to England
as missionary, 17 ff.
Augustus, character of his reign,
115. See Octavianus.
Aurelius, emperor of the Britons,
17.
Babel, tower of, 188.
Babylon, 114.
Badon, Mt., siege of, 17.
ball-playing, 210.
Baltic Sea, 109 n.
baptism, 160, 168, 253, 268; of
Constantine, 176 ; of Edwin, 34.
baths, hot, found in Britain, 8.
beasts, trapping of, 179.
Bede, 154 n., 263 n.; death of,
255 ff. ; last work of ,258 ; lauded
by Alcuin, 264 ; letter of, 253 ;
life of, 3.
works of: Ecclesiastical His-
tory, 5ff. : editions of, 4 ; sources
of, 5 ; minor, 231 ff. ; quoted by
^Ifric, 155.
bee, Alfred compared to, 92.
Benedict Biscop, 247, 249, 252;
accompanies Theodore to Eng-
land, 45 n. ; educates Bede, 3 ;
founds Jarrow, 3 ; life of, 243 ff.
Benedict, St., 155; life of, 278 ?i.
Rule of : 249, 260 n. , 261, 278 ff.
Bertha, Queen, first Christian
queen in England, 20.
birds, feed monks, 164, 239; re-
buked by Cuthbert, 242.
Boethius, 263 n. ; Alfred's account
of, 117 ; quoted by Alcuin, 276 ;
his Consolation of Philosophy,
117 ff.; Alfred's preface to, 117 ;
influence of, 116 n.; translations
of, 116 n.
book-mark, 103.
books, as gifts, 248 ; required by
priests, 100 n., 193, 194; sent
to England, 23, 244 ; use of, by
monks, 283. See also libraries.
brass, 182 ; gates of, in hell, 223.
bridge, pontoon, 176.
Britain, called Albion, 7 ; descrip-
tion of, 7 ff. ; invasion of, by
Anglo-Saxons, 14 ff., 67; lan-
guages in, 9; length of day in,
8 ; metals found in, 8.
Britons, come from Armorica, 9 ;
cowardice and inefficiency of,
13 ff . , 205 ; defeated by the Picts
INDEX
289
and Scots, 14 ; dependence on
Eomans, 11 ff.; the first inhab-
itants of the island, 9 ; personal
appearance of, 30.
Brutus, 123.
Caedmon, the poet, 54 ff. ; account
of liis works, 58 ; composes in
sleep, 55 ; death of, 57-58 ;
enters monastery, 56 ; first
poem, quoted, 55.
Csesar, Julius, 66 n.
calendar, 154 ff., 192; order of,
explained, 231 ff.
Canterbury, 21, 80, 80 n.; cap-
tured by the Danes, 68 ; Christ
Church (cathedral), 80, 81.
carpenter, 183.
Cassius, confused with Brutus,
123.
Cato, 123.
censer, 247.
Ceolfrith, life of, 247 ff.
Cerberus, 127.
Cernel, monastery, 149 n., 152.
Chad, 47 ff.
chalices, 23, 192.
chants, see singing.
Charlemagne, 260 n. ; Alcuin's let-
ters to, 271 ff., 276-277 ; charac-
ter of, 271 ; his love of learn-
ing, 276-277 ; his nickname,
272 n., 277.
Charon, 127.
charters, 80 ff.
Chaucer, 116 n,., 119 n.
Christ, birth of, 67, 115 ; cruci-
fixion of, 67 ; harrows hell,
223 ff .
Christianity, adopted by Edwin,
31 ff. ; adopted voluntarily by
the English, 22; defended by
Orosius, 114-115; in England
before Augustine, 22 ; forsaken
for heathendom, 197 ; Greek,
45 ; neglected during Danish
invasions, 198.
Christmas, ' mother's night,' 231.
Christmas-gifts, 94.
Chronicle, Old English, 67 ff. ;
dates of entries, 66 ; depend-
ence on Bede's History, 66,
67 w.; how made, 67 n. ; influ-
ence on Asser, 67 n. ; transla-
tions of, 67 n. ; versions of, 66
churches, at Canterbury, 22, 80
81; decoration of, 23, 244 ff.
272 ; despoiled by the Danes
195 ; at Lichfield, 46 ; St. Mar
tin's, 22 ; St. Peter's, York, 34
stone, in Britain, 34.
Clyde, Firth of, 11, 12.
Cnut, King, 192.
Coifi, 31 ff.
cold, power of producing, said to
exist among the Esthonians,
114.
colloquy, 178 ff.
comet, 77.
commerce, see merchants.
Constantine, 175 ff.
Constantinople, 25, 117.
copper, 182.
Creed, daily use of, recommended,
253.
cross, 21, 36, 37, 225 ff., 263 n.;
adoration of, 177, 266; appear-
ance of, at Doomsday, 201 ; of
gold, 250; invention of, 67,
175 ff.; relics of, preserved, 176 ;
sign of the, 58, 81, 165-166,
227 ; used as a standard in
battle, 36, 175, 266.
Cuthbert, life of, 233 ff.
Danes, battle-line of, described,
89 ; defeated by ^thelwulf , 68 ;
defeated by Alfred at Ashdown,
90 ; enslave Englishmen, 198 ;
first ravages of, in England, 68,
290
INDEX
'J(51 n., 202; gods of the, 180-
100 ; invasions of, throe periinls
distingnished, 103 ; ravages of,
in Alfred's time, 102, 201, 205,
275 ; ravages of, later, 103 ; re-
ceive tribnte, 105, 107 ; victori-
ous over Egbert, 08 ; winter in
Thanet, 78. 8tr also Maldon.
David, speaks in hell, 223 ff.
death, certainty of, 124, 257.
Denmark, 112.
Dispensation, the Old and the
New, 150.
Dives, 143.
divination, see heathen rites of.
Doomsdaj', see Last Judgment.
doubts, religious, 133 ff.
dreams, 55, 175.
Dunstan, Archbishop, 152.
eagle, 110, 222, 230.
earth, destruction of, at Dooms-
day, 201 ff . ; nature of, 120.
Easter, etymology of. 232; homily,
104 ff. ; observance of, 43, 44,
45. •
Edington, battle of, 70.
education, in England, 100 ff. ; de-
cay of, 101-102, 152; foreign-
ers seek. An., 101, 202 7i., 272,
277 ; nature of false, 184 ; re-
established by Dunstan and
.Ethehvold, 152.
Edwin, Earl, 72.
Edwin,kingof Northumbria,31 ff. ;
assassinated, 35 ; baptized, 34 ;
his peaceful reign, 35.
Egypt, 104.
elements, the four, 125.
Elijah, opponent of Antichrist,
227.
Elizabeth, Queen, 110 71., 104 )i.
empires, the four great, 114.
Encheiridion, see Alfred, literary
work of.
English, modern study of, begun,
104 n. Sec Anglo-8axons.
English language, mentioned, 30,
38, 54, 101, 103, 117, 140, 151,
154 ; interpreted by Franks, 10.
Enoch, opponent of Antichrist,
227.
Esthonia, topography and cus-
toms of, 112-113.
eucharist, 57, 103, 104 ff.; man
and God alike present in, 172-
173; a symbol, 100; transub-
stantiation in, 107.
Eurydice, 120 ff.
Exeter, monastery, 94.
exploration, 100 ff.
fame, emptiness of, 123.
famine, in England, 103, 106.
Fame, 240.
fasting, 39, 04, 06.
Fathers, works of, recommended,
130-137,144. See aiso Ambrose,
Augustine, Gregory, Jerome,
etc.
feuds, laws respecting, 70-80.
Finns, 100 ff.
fire, nature of, 125-120, 128.
fishing, 133, 178, 180-181. See
also whale-fishing,
flogging, 178, 185, 180.
flowers, 02.
Forth, Firth of, 12.
fowlers, 110, 133, 178.
fowling, 133, 181-182.
France, 51.
frankincense, 240.
Franks, 10.
Frigg, identified with Venus,
101.
Frische Haff, 112.
funeral rites, Esthonian, 113.
game-laws, introduced by Wil-
liam I, 70.
INDEX
291
games, 271 ; athletic, 209-210 ; of
boys, 234; funeral, 113.
gifts,^ 248, 255, 258.
Gilda«, quoted Vjy Alcuin, 2G5,
274; used by Bede, 4, 11 ti.,
12 n., 14 n., 17 n.
glass, 182, 192, 241 ; manufacture
of, taught to the English. 243.
God, constantly renews Nature,
138 ; imaged in the human soul,
159; incomprehensible to the
finite mind, 158 ; nature of, 120-
130, 158; omnipotence of, 124,
130; a sjjirit, 130; tran.scends
time, 130, 186; as wisdom,
143.
gods, heathen, 33 ; origin of their
worship, 188-189. See also Sat-
urn, Way land, Woden, etc.
golden age, described by Boethius,
119; described by Chaucer,
119 n.
Goths, invade Italy, 117.
grammar, 151 ff., 272.
Greece, 114.
Greek, 209, 231 ; classics in the
library at York, 203 n. ; influ-
ence of, on Alcuin. 276 ; knowl-
edge of, in England, 4, 44, 4G,
203 n.
Greeks, mentioned, 103, 118, 120,
270 ; gods of, 189.
Gregory I, Pope and Saint, 101 ff.,
133, 154 n.
life and character of: en-
counters British slave-boys, 30 ;
epitaph, 29 ; greatness, 100 n. ;
interest in Britain, 27 ff. ; inter-
est in monks, 278 n. ; letter of,
18; life of, 23 ff.; modesty of,
25, 104 ; preference for monastic
life, 24-25 ; works on, 101 n.
vjritings of: described, 20-
27 ; quotation from, 262 ; Dia-
lofjues, influence St. Augustine,
132 n.; PaMoral Care. 101 ff.:
yElfric's opinion of, 100 n. ; Al-
fred's preface to, 101 ff. ; Bede's
opinion of. 26 ; nature of, 100 n.
gymnasium, 209-210.
Hadrian, 5 ; sent to England, 44.
Harold. King, 71 ff.
hari>-playing, 54, 126 ff., 213 ff.,
273.
harrowing of hell, 218 ff., 266.
Hastings, battle of, 73.
hawking, see fowling.
heathen, rites of, 156, 232, 233,
237 ; abandoned, 22, 33.
heaven, inhabitants of, know mor-
tal events, 144 ; rewards in, vari-
ous, 141, 267 ; vision of, 62-63.
Heavenfield, battle of, 36.
heavens, the moving (spheres),
128.
Helena, St., 176.
hell, described, 60 ; harrowed by
Christ, 218 ff.. 206 ; Inhabitants
of, know mortal events, 144 ;
laughter in, 61 ; mortals de-
scend into, 59 ff., 127; personi-
fied, 221 ff. ; punishments of,
61 ff.. 127-128, 141, 143 ; visited
by Orpheus, 126 ff.
Henglst, 15, 67.
heresies, 26; Arian, 117; com-
bated by Alcuin, 260 n.
hermit, 64. 163-164, 234, 240, 279 ;
call of. described, 241.
mid. Abbess, 34 n., 50 ff.; en-
courages Csedmon, 55-56 ; life
of, 50 ff.
homilies, Blickiing, 200 ff. ; see
iElfric, Wulfstan.
Horsa, 15, 67.
hor.ses, 33, 41, 113, 180.
hospice, 239.
Hnmber, a natural boundary,
101 ; Danes sail up, 193.
292
INDEX
hunting, 109 ff., 178, 179-180; de-
coys used in, 111 ; of foxes,
261; loved by Alfred, 86, 91;
loved by William I, 75 ; prac-
tised by monks, 263.
hymn-book, 191.
idolatry, 195 ; end of, at Dooms-
day, 202 ; in England, 33 ; ori-
gin of, 188.
immortality, see soul.
incense, as gift, 94, 249, 258.
intellect, 140 ff., 159.
lona, 40 n.
Ireland, description of, Off. ; snakes
not found in, 10.
Irish, language of, 38, 42 ; mis-
sionaries of, to England, 37-38.
Isaiah, speaks in hell, 223.
ivory, 110, 182.
Ixion, 127.
Janus, 115.
Jarrow, 3, 255 n., 261.
Jerome, St., 132 n., 133, 154 n.,
175, 177, 260 n., 263 n.
Jerusalem, 158.
John, Abbot, teacher of singing,
50, 244.
John, Baptist, St., herald of
Christ, in hell, 220.
Jove, 189.
kings, rule under god, 135.
knovs-ledge, based on faith, 140.
lamb, sacrificial, 165 ff.
Lapland, 109 ff.
Last Supper, 167.
Last Judgment, 56, 63, 143, 144,
188, 200 ff.; painting of, 245;
signs of, 200.
Latin, classics, in York library,
263 n. ; knowledge of, in Eng-
land, 9, 46, 103, 150, 151, 253,
260, 263 n. ; studied in nunner-
ies, 51 ?i. ; teaching of, 177 ff.
laws. Old English, 76 ff. ; Alfred's
preamble to, 77-78 ; rejections
by Alfred, 78. ; respecting feuds,
79-80 ; respecting refuge in
churches, 79, 80.
learning, see education.
letters, 255 ff .
lettuce, 165.
libraries, 3, 248, 263, 272, 283;
English, superior to continental,
272 ; list of books in, at York,
263 n.
Lichfield, 46.
life, transitory, 32.
Lindisfarne, 37, 65, 236 ; Gospels^
mentioned, 65 w.; ravaged by
Danes, 68; topography of, ex-
plained, 37, 240.
litany, 250 ; used by Augustine,
21.
London, besieged by the Danes,
193 ; captured by the Danes, 68 ;
occupied by Alfred, 71 ; sur-
renders to William I, 74.
love-story, see Apollonius.
luxury, dangers of, 106.
Maldon, battle of, 195.
man, creation of, 187 ; fall of,
187.
manuscripts, illumination of,
65 n., 88.
March, first of months, 155.
marriage, 150.
Mars, 189.
martyrdom, nature of, 163.
mass, celebrated daily, 252 ; di-
rections regarding the celebra-
tion of, 192.
mead, 113.
Melrose, monastery, 59.
memory, 159.
merchants, life of, 182.
INDEX
293
Mercury, 190.
Michael, St., 131; guardian of
Paradise, 220, 226; as raising
the dead, 205 ; as slaying the
wicked, 205.
milk, drunk by kings, 112.
Minerva, 189.
miracles, age of, past, 160; in
Britain, 36, 58, 238, 239 ; con-
tinuous, 157 ; explained by
^Ifric, 157 ; spiritual, the great-
est, 160-161.
missal, 19.
monasteries, artificers in, 284;
bequest to, 80-81 ; business
methods of, 284; daily life in,
described, 185-186; decorated
with paintings, 247 ; early Eng-
lish, 38 ; erected by William I,
75 ; families enter, 56 ; given
away, as gifts, 94; infirmary
in, 57, 281; libraries in, 248,
263 ; meals in, 281 ; misuse of,
254-255 ; oppressed by Wil-
liam I, 75 ; private dwellings
in, 59 ; rank in, 285 ; ruled by
a woman, 52 ; secured from
foreign invasion, 244 ; study
required in, 283. See also mon-
astic life, monks.
monastic life, 21, 38, 39, 47 ff.,
51 ff., 65, 185-186, 243, 245 ff.,
256-258, 279 ff. ; Alcuin's ideal,
270-271, 275; apostolic origin
of, 275. See also monasteries,
monks.
Monday, name explained, 190;
superstition regarding, 156.
monks, Benedictine, 75 ; dissolute,
280 ; four varieties of, distin-
guished, 279 ; indulge in hunt-
ing, 263; labors of, 245, 246;
learning of, 279 n. ; penance of,
65, 238; sick, treatment of,
281, 283 ; as traveling teachers,
237. See also abbots, hermits,
monasteries, monastic life.
Monte Cassino,44 n. , 278 n. , 279 n.
months, names of, explained,
231 ff.
moon, 190, 231 ; effect of man's
fall on, 187-188 ; effect of the
sea on, 156 ; effect of, on trees,
156 ; larger than the earth, 142.
mortification of the body, 65,
238. See also hermits,
music, church, 3 ; first generally
used in English churches, 46.
See also singing,
music-books, 244,
Naples, 44.
navy, 120 ; of Alfred, 71 ; of the
Danes, 68 ; of Tostig, 72.
Neptune, 208.
Nero, 120.
New Year's Day, 154-155.
Nicodemus, Gospel of, 219 ?i.
Noah's flood, 121, 188.
Northumbria, kingdom formed,
42 >i.
Norway, 109 ff.
nuns, first in Northumbria, 52.
Octavianus, 67.
Odin, see Woden.
Odo, Bishop, 74, 76.
Ohthere, 109 ff.
oil, 182 ; of mercy, 220.
Orosius, his Universal History,
109 ff.; Alfred's treatment of,
108 n. ; nature of, 108 n. ; used
by Bede, 4.
Orpheus, 126 ff.
Oswald, 35 ff. ; acts as interpreter
for Aidan, 38.
Oswin, 41-42.
otters. 111, 238.
outlaws, 78.
Owin, 46 ff.
294
INDEX
painting, see pictures.
Paradise, 220 ff. ; described, 62 ff.
Parcse, 127.
Passover, 165 ff.
Pastoral Care, see Gregory.
Paternoster, 191.
Paulinus, 31 ff.
pearls, 8.
pepper, 258.
Pericles, Shakespeare's play, sim-
ilar to Apollonius, 207, 218 n.
Peter, Gregory's deacon, 24, 69.
Picts, 9, 10, 12 ff. ; Romans re-
pulse, 11-12.
pictures, 157 ; arrangement of, in
churches, 247 ; brought to Eng-
land from abroad, 244-245, 247 ;
of the Revelation of St. John,
244; of the Saviour, 20, 247;
used as images, 266; of the
Virgin, 244.
planets, 128.
Plato, 276.
Plegmund, Alfred's assistant, 93,
103.
Pliny, 216 n.; used by Bede, 8 n.
plowmen, life of, 172.
poetry, Old English vernacular,
54 ff.: Bede skilled in, 257; in
the Chronicle, 6Q n. ; disapproved
by Alcuin, 273 ; loved by Alfred,
87-88, 91 ; not susceptible of
satisfactory translation, 55.
power, nature of worldly, 120-121,
122, 129; true, 121.
prayers, for the dead, 63, 256.
preaching, 253 ; an English method
of, 237.
prison, 144.
prosody, 46.
Psalter, read through twice daily,
252.
Ptolemies, 114.
Purgatory, described, 60, 63.
pyre, 113.
racing, 113.
reading, 157. See also books, edu-
cation,
refuge, places of, 79, 195.
reindeer. 111.
relics, sacred, brought to England,
23, 244.
resurrection, 58, 59, 203 ; of Christ,
225 ; of Lazarus, from hell, 222.
riches, among the Esthonians, 111;
true nature of, 118.
rings, as payment, 180.
rogations, 21 n., 258.
romance, see Apollonius.
Romans, abandon Britons, 13 ;
aid Britons, 11; gods of, 189-
190.
Rome, visited, 3, 243-244, 246,
248, 249, 251.
rood, see cross.
saints, 131 ; relics of, 23, 256.
salt-workers, 178.
sanctuary, right of, see refuge,
places of.
Satan, 219 ff. ; battles with Christ,
223 ff.; bound by Christ, 225.
Saturn, 128, 189, 191.
Schleswig, 109 n.
school, of Charlemagne, 4, 260 n. ;
of Jarrow, 3, 255 n. ; of Theo-
dore, 46 ; of York, 4.
Senlac, 73 n.
sermons, see homilies.
shepherds, 235; life of, 179; the
true and the false, 173.
shoemakers, 183.
silk, 182, 247.
Simeon, speaks in hell, 220.
singing, 62, 64, 194, 248 ; of an-
gels, 48 ; common at feasts,
54, 213; of monks, 178, 185,
246, 251 ; Roman method of,
taught, 50, 244 ; teaching, 50,
215, 244.
INDEX
295
skins, as wealth, 111.
slavery, 30, 40, 195, 197, 198.
smiths, 183, 2-16.
songs, see poetry.
soul, God's greatest work, 138;
immortality of, 134 ff. ; nature
of, 159 ; preexistence of, 139 ;
weighed down by body, 142.
southeast, a sacred quarter, 48, 62.
Spain, 9.
sparrow, parable of, 32.
spice, 182.
springs, 35.
Stamford Bridge, battle of, 72.
standards, borne before kings, 35.
stars, 191 ; aspect of, at Dooms-
day, 204.
suffering, value of, 106, 135.
sulphur, 182.
sun, effect of man's fall on, 187-
188 ; relation of heat and light
in, 157 ff. ; a symbol of God, 158.
Sunday, name explained, 190.
superstition, 20, 156.
Tacitus, used by Bede, 8 n.
Tantalus, 127.
Tarquin, 121.
teachers, as confessors, 108 ; Cuth-
bert's example, 242 ; learn from
Scripture, 107 ; Moses a type of,
107 ; often mislead, 150, 191 ;
of singing, 50, 215, 244 ; true
and false, 173.
teaching, Alcuin's ideal, 269, 270 ;
art of, must be learned, 105,
152 ; Gregory's ideal of, 104 ff.,
269 ; of Latin, 177 ff. ; learning
required, 152, 191, 192, 263-
264 ; not for the ambitious,
106, 173-174 ; scarcity of good,
153; sympathy needed in, 107.
temples, heathen, 33, 34, 278 ?i.
Testament, New, fulfils the Old,
150.
text-book, Latin, 177 ff.
Thanet, isle of, 68.
Theodore, mentioned^ 4 ; first
archbishop of all England, 44 ;
sent to England, 44.
Theodoric, 116, 117-118, 120.
thief, the penitent, found in Para-
dise, 227.
Thor, identified with Jove, 189,
190.
tin, 182, 192.
Tityrus, 128.
tonsure, 45, 59, 65.
Tostig, 72.
translation, iElfric's method of,
151, 154. See also Alfred, works
of.
treason, penalty for, 78.
tree, of life, 156, 220 ff.
Trinity, 159, 187.
Tully, 263 n.
Venus, 189, 190.
vestments, imported, 23, 24?
248.
Virgil, 263 n.; used by Bede,
34 n.
visions, 267 ; of the cross, 125 ;
Cuthbert's, 235-236; of the
hereafter, 58 7i., 58 ff.
Vistula, 112.
volcano, 120, 121.
Vortigern, 14, 67.
wall, constructed across Britain,
11 ; Roman, 13, 37.
walrus, 110-111.
water, nature of, 125.
Watling Street, 193.
Wayland, the smith, 123.
Werfrith, 85)1., 93, 101.
wergild, 79, 197.
Werwulf, 93.
Westminster, 74, 75.
whalebone. 111.
296
INDEX
whale-fishing, 7, 109 ff., 181.
Whitby, 50.
will, nature of the, 159.
will, of Lufu, 80-81.
William I, King, 72 ; arrives in
England, 73 ; character of, 75-
76 ; crowned, 74 ; death of, 74-
75; knew England thoroughly,
76 ; London surrenders to, 74 ;
taxes the people, 74.
Winchester, 149 n.
window-glass, 243.
wisdom, survives death, 141-
142.
Woden (Odin), 190.
woman, position/ of, in Old Eng-
lish times : Alfred's mother,
87 ; Bertha, the first Christian
queen, 20 ; Hild, the abbess,
50 ff. ; the princess in Apollo-
nius, 211 ff. ^,^; q-
Worcester, 101, 192 n. ^^
world, creation of, 155 ; end of,
approaching, 153, 194, 271.
Wulf Stan, the homilist, 191, 192 ff. ;
style of, 194 n.
Wulfstan, the navigator, 109 ff.
York, first Christian churches at,
34.
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